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In-depth Notes on Alcohol, Drugs, and Crime
The criminalisation of drugs is a significant phenomenon that has developed over the course of the 20th century, shaped by various social, political, and cultural factors.
19th Century
The United Kingdom was a key player in the international opium trade, significantly influencing global economics and politics. Opium was largely unregulated during this period.
Early to Mid-20th Century
During this era, drug use was predominantly perceived as a medical issue rather than a criminal one.
Substances like heroin were legally available through prescriptions and were utilized to manage addiction and alleviate pain, reflecting a more compassionate view of drug dependency.
Dangerous Drugs Act 1920
The Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 was one of the first comprehensive legislative efforts aimed at curbing drug use in the UK. It focused on the regulation of cocaine and opium-based drugs, emphasizing control over their distribution and use.
This act laid the groundwork for the evolution of drug policies that followed, which increasingly leaned toward criminalisation.
A gradual shift
Starting in the 1960s, the perception of drug use began to undergo a critical transformation. This period saw a stark move towards criminalisation fueled by societal fears and moral panics.
1960s Counterculture
The Beat Generation emerged as a countercultural literary movement that rejected mainstream values, capitalism, and conformity, catalyzing broader cultural shifts across society.
The rise of psychedelic drugs, notably during the hippie movement, coincided with the emergence of iconic musical acts, such as The Beatles and Pink Floyd, which further popularised drug culture.
Concurrently, a significant wave of public concern rose, leading to stricter drug regulations, epitomised by the enactment of the Drugs (Prevention of Misuse) Act 1964, which sought to address the perceived threat posed by drug use.
Becker (1963) - 'Outsiders'
Howard Becker introduced the concept of the social construction of deviance, elucidating how drug use began to be labelled as deviant behavior by society.
His work focuses on labeling theory, positing that deviance is shaped primarily by social reactions rather than the actions themselves.
Once individuals are labelled as deviant due to drug use, there is a likelihood of further deviant behavior, underscoring the influence of social power in establishing and maintaining societal norms.
Young (1971) - 'The Drugtakers'
David Young's study examined the surrounding social context of drug use, arguing that society constructs specific meanings and perceptions around drug use.
He contested the notion that drug users are morally deficient or inherently deviant, focussing instead on how social structures and power dynamics influence perceptions of drug use.
Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
This Act established a legal framework for drug classifications based on perceived harm, introducing three primary categories:
Class A: Includes substances such as cocaine, heroin, and LSD, recognized for their high potential for harm.
Class B: Encompasses cannabis and amphetamines, with moderate risk profiles.
Class C: Covers anabolic steroids and benzodiazepines, considered to have lower risks than Class A or B substances.
Sentencing Council (2024)
The penalties established by the Sentencing Council highlight the seriousness of drug offenses based on their classification:
Class A: Possession can lead to up to 7 years in prison; supply can result in a life sentence.
Class B: Penalties can reach up to 5 years for possession; up to 14 years for supply.
Class C: Potential sentences include up to 2 years for possession and up to 14 years for supply.
Doubts about Legal Classification of Drugs
Research conducted by Nutt et al. (2007, 2010) raised critical questions regarding the validity of current drug classifications, suggesting that they may not accurately reflect the substances' relative harms.
The analysis pushed for reassessment of substances based on physical, dependency, and social harm, concluding that under a revised system, alcohol might be classified as Class A, while cannabis could be placed in Class C.
Changing Attitudes Toward Drugs (Bennett and Holloway, 2005)
Bennett and Holloway identified distinct phases in drug policy evolution since the 1980s:
Supply Reduction: Enforcement measures aimed at decreasing drug availability through law enforcement.
Demand Reduction: Programs focusing on prevention and assisting youth at risk of drug issues or those currently facing drug-related problems.
Harm Reduction: Approaches aimed at reducing the risks associated with drug use rather than solely focusing on abstinence or punishment.
The Normalisation Debate
There was an observed increase in drug use among youth during the late 1980s and 1990s, leading to the concept of normalisation, where drug usage becomes seen as a typical part of youth culture.
Critics of the normalisation viewpoint argue that it oversimplifies complex social dynamics, positing instead that normalisation extends beyond individual behavior to encompass broader cultural attitudes towards substance use.
Who Uses Drugs?
As of March 2023, statistics indicate that 9.5% (3.1 million) of individuals aged 16-59 reported drug use within the past year.
Among this population, 7.6% reported using cannabis and 3.3% reported using Class A drugs.
There has been a notable increase in the prevalence of drug use, particularly concerning Class A substances, since 2013.
Drugs and Crime Statistics
Drug usage within offender populations is markedly higher than that of the general populace:
35% of arrestees are classified as 'problem drug users.'
80% of arrestees report having engaged in illicit drug use in the preceding year.
Relationship between Drugs and Crime: 5 Hypotheses
Drug Use Causes Crime: Suggesting that drug-related chemical effects or economic need lead to criminal activities.
Crime Causes Drug Use: Indicating that profits from crime are used to fund drug purchases.
Common Cause: Proposing that shared risk factors contribute to both behaviors of drug use and crime.
Reciprocal Relationship: Acknowledging that drug use and crime may influence each other in complex ways.
No Relationship: Asserting that the observed correlation does not imply causation or direct links between the two phenomena.
Drugs and Policing Objectives (Kleiman & Smith, 1990)
Objectives of drug policing generally aim to:
Limit the number of users as well as the associated harm arising from substance abuse.
Mitigate violence stemming from drug dealing and crimes committed under drug influence.
Prevent the rise of powerful narcotics organizations that undermine community safety.
Maintain neighborhood quality of life to ensure harmonious living conditions.
The 'War on Drugs'
The 'War on Drugs' represents a policy framework aimed at combating illegal drugs, first initiated by Richard Nixon in the 1970s.
This approach is characterised by stringent laws and aggressive enforcement tactics yet has faced criticism for perpetuating social injustice and failing to effectively diminish the availability of drugs in society.
Consequences of the 'War on Drugs'
Critics argue that the 'War on Drugs' has resulted in the displacement of drug markets rather than a genuine reduction in drug use or availability.
Additionally, it has heightened violence and engendered socio-economic instability in the regions most affected by drug-related enforcement.
The punitive measures have also restricted human rights, fostering stigma against users and exacerbating their marginalisation within society.
Decriminalisation and Legalisation
There has been increasing advocacy for reforming drug policy, citing evidence from countries like Portugal that demonstrate benefits associated with decriminalising drug use.
Such reforms have shown potential in diminishing the harms tied to drug use, steering focus towards a harm reduction strategy centred on public health imperatives rather than punitive measures that often lead to further marginalisation of drug users.