Indigenous studies

The Indian Act 

-Government accepted all responsibility for “Indian, and lands reserved for the Indians” in the British North America Act 

-Indian Act passed in 1876 (consolidated and amended all of the previous statues on Indigenous groups and the rights they held in society)

-Serves as the primary policy document for three major areas 

-Allocation of reserve lands 

-Defines who can qualify for Indian status 

-Grants enforcement authority to the federal government 

-Was ultimately viewed as a temporary measure until all Indigenous groups were assimilated (as this did not happen the act is still the governing document for all Indigenous policy in Canada)

Impacts of the Act 

-Contrary to the letter and spirit of the treaties 

-Ending of traditional governance practices (authority removed from the hereditary chiefs. Previously it was men who spoke for the group but women decided who the leaders were. Traditional means of appointing leadership outlawed. Replaced with a municipal style band council system. Western election system imposed to fill council roles. Two systems do come into conflict)

-Enfranchisement (process of renouncing your indigenous status and joining settler society. Giving up your indigenous identity and communal society to live off reserve. Different set of rights on reserve as compared with off. By becoming enfranchised individuals would become citizens of Canada, be allowed to vote, and live off reserve. Status members were the only individuals who could live on reserve)

-Indian Agents (government officials assigned to oversee the daily operations and governance of Status Indians 

. Implement the Indian act and policies of the department of Indian affairs on reserves. Supervises agricultural activities, distributed farm supplies and food rations, managed band finances, conducted elections, and paid annuities. Enforced religious and ceremonial bans, forced attendance at residential schools, banned butchering of cattle, imposed permit system requiring sale of agricultural goods without permission)

-Indian agents keep all records for reserves- births, deaths, etc. (administered all contact for work to be done on reserves. Administered the pass system. Controlled who could leave the reserves. Patronage position in many areas)

-Criminalization of Religion (banned traditional practices. Viewed as being wasteful. Potlatch was outlawed in 1884. Sun dance and thirst dance were outlawed for plains groups in 1895. Bans removed in 1951)

-Residential Schools (Canadian government assumed responsibility for Indigenous education. First residential schools opened in Western Canada in 1883-4. Main role of the schools was assimilation. Education was to be provided under agreement)

-Children intentionally removed from their communities and subjected to assimilation practices and abuse (changed traditional hair and clothing, given Christian names. Religious and social practices demeaned. Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Deaths due to malnourishment, diseases, and abuse)

-Estimated 150,000 Individuals went through schools, 6000 deaths 

Sixties Scoop 

-Amendments made to the Indian Act in 1951 gave the provinces jurisdiction over areas of Indigenous child welfare that were not covered federally 

-Indigenous communities were dealing with social, cultural, and economic issues created by the Indian act for close to a century 

-Allowed provincial governments to remove Indigenous children from their families and communities and place them with non-indigenous adoptive parents (rather than provide community support and resources)

-Welfare workers did not need to consent of Indigenous communities to remove children until1980

  -Practices were in place until the 1980s. Adoptive families were found throughout the globe 

-Indigenous affairs places number of children at 11,132 (research suggests more than 20,000 children) 

Indigenous Status 

-Status defined under section 6 of the Indian act 

-Government has sole authority to decide who has status 

-Focus on make lines, not larger kinship (not possible for a non indigenous male to head up and indigenous family)

-Can lose status through voluntary enfranchisement 

-Also through obtaining a university degree, becoming a doctor or lawyer, or entering the Christian clergy 

-Major impacts for the status of women 

-Women who marries a non-status man loses her Indigenous status (also if her spouse receives a university degree. Only regain it if he marries someone)

-Non Indigenous women can get status if she marries a man with status 

-Lose all of her rights and protections under the Act (cannot live in home reserve communities. Hunting, fishing, health care, and education benefits)

 Indigenous Status 

-Bill C-31

-Created to amend the concept of status 

-Implemented in 1985 

-Allowed for individuals who lost their status to obtain it again and remove some discriminatory provisions 

-If a woman with status marries a man without status she loses her status (children have no status)

-After C-31. two different levels of status under sections 6: 

6(1) Individuals born to two parents with status. 6(2)

Non status individuals can still be Indigenous, but not have status with the government. Over time this system will gradually reduce the number of status Individuals enrolled within it (even if 6-1 over several generations children and grandchildren will most.

February 25th, 2025

The metis of Canada 

-They are a culturally distinct indigenous group that differ from both native and inuit population 

- Name is typically associated with communities in western Canada (groups involved in the 1885 Resistance)

-Has a wider application when used to examine communities across Canada.

-There is a distinction between metis and Metis. Large M Metis refer to the Metis Nation, which traces its formation back to the fur trade and the Red River settlement of Manitoba. Small m metis refer to individuals who have a mixed cultural ancestry of Indigenous and Settler origin. 

Ethnicity 

-Identification with a particular ethnic group. Ethnicity exists when people claim a certain ethnic identity for themselves, others define that individual as being part of that group . Recognition does not always happen. 

Attributes of Ethnicity 

-Origin myth- shared historical experience, what those events are can vary (clear definition of “us” and them.)

-Provides group members with a basis for defining themselves as unique 

-Identity and imagery within origin beliefs integrated into everyday activities, events and practices 

-Passive part of society (practiced without the intention to do so, unconscious)

-Boundary markers (overt characteristics used to denote group membership, any marker can be used by more than one ethnic group, multiple markers used to establish unique identity, language)

-Markers can take up multiple forms (language, clothing, religion, art, technology, food, ways of living.)

Ethnogenesis

-Creation of a new cultural identity by a portion of a pre-existing society (members identify themselves as being distinct from the cultures they previously identified with)

-Occurs through interaction with their natural and social environment 

-Active process (deliberately engineers separate identity)

-Passive process (markers of group identity gradually formed and reinforced over time)

-Creation of a new language or language revival 

-Process is not simply a combination of traits of both cultures 

-New identity will draw elements from “parent” cultures but will recontextualize them within their own personal experiences and history as a group. 

-Will also add new elements based upon the shared experiences of group members

Variations of Metis Identity 

-Process of ethnogenesis resulting from Indigenous-european contact seen across canada. 

-Labrador (Nunavummiut) largely based in southern Labrador along the coast, origins from the union between Inuit women and Nasque/french fishermen, subsisting from seasonal maritime and terrestrial resources. Recognized as an aboriginal group in Canada by the Federal government in 1996)

-Maritimes (origins within Mi’kmaq/Maliseet groups and French/English settlers. Fishing, hunting, and trapping)

Metis Nation 

-Big “M” metis refers to the Metis of Western Canada (homeland in the red river area of manitoba)

-Origins of the Metis are traced to the fur trade (extends back to the quebec and ontario)

-To facilitate trade marriage was required between Europeans and Indigenous groups to formalize social relations (traders and clerks with Indigenous women, english and french)

-Children from marriages filled unique roles within the fur trade (tribesmen, translator, hunters, independent traders)

-Women played a vital role in the process of identity formation (possessed indigenous knowledge and relationships with indigenous males. Viewed as being appropriate marriage partners for fur trade elite living “in country” (ethnocentric beliefs)

-Formation of Metis identity was not immediate (during the early period of fur trade mixed heritage children were likely integrated into Indigenous groups of the mother)

-As Metis group members were distinguished in their unique roles as distinct identity was created (shared experiences in the fur trade for both men and women. Employed by fur trade companies but became independent as traders and hunter)

-Major events distinguished the Metis as an independent identity in Western Canada. 

-Red River Colony (established in 1812 by Lord Selkirk for Scottish and Irish settlers as an agricultural community. Was home to largely Metis and Indigenous traders, hunters. Was the focal point for the annual Metis bison hunt)

-Scarce provisions resulted in the colony governor issued the Pemmican Proclamation in 1814 (prevented any pemmican from being exported from the colony) 

-Had a major impact on fur brigade provisions (NWC)

-Proclamation resulted in conflict (blockades along river routes to considerate pemmican. Burning of trade posts)

-Battle of Seven Oaks (June 19 1816. NWC Metis attacked the colony to take back pemmican that had been seized by the HBC)

-Decisive win for the Metis (killed 21 of 28 colonists including Governor Semple. Lost 1 individual. Colony temporarily abandoned)

-During the early fur trade period women of mixed heritage were viewed as being appropriate wives for officers 

-Women retained the skills learned from their mothers side while being instructed in upper class European behaviours (higher education and social practices)

-Changed in 1821 with Governor George Simpson bringing a European wife to Canada (officers abandoned their Metis wives)

-Women returned to their home communities and extended families 

-Brought with them the skills, practices, and traditions of upper-class European fur traders 

-Incorporated into a larger Metis identity (tea service and ceramic use-established social cohesion. Household practices)

Metis land conflict 

-With the sale of Ruperts Land Metis in Manitoba had concerns about losing their property 

-Government surveyors were assessing their properties and breaking it into quarter-sections (terra nullius)

-Party of Metis blocked government surveyors from entering colony (october 1869)

-Blocked Governor William McDougall from entering the territory (november 1869. Seized Fort Garry-major trading post) 

-Led to the formation of a provisional government led by Louis Riel (December 1869) 

Red River Rebellion 

-Louis Riel elected head of the provisional government in January 1870 

-Pro-Canadian faction of Settlers from Ontario organized resistance to provisional government (protestant orangemen. Call to arms made, arrested by the provisional government)

-Thomas Scott (insubordinate to guards. Tried and executed march 1870)

Metis Land Conflict 

-Negotiations between Canadian government and provisional government led to the Manitoba Act-May 1870 (entry of manitoba into confederation in July)

-Act guaranteed Metis individuals would receive title for the land they farmed (additional 1.4 million acres set aside for their children that would be available through the application process)

-Government ran out of land and began issuing script (statement saying they owned 96 acres) 

-Frequently the land is a large distance away from where the individual lived (sold the script to the land speculators at a fraction of the cost due to financial need)

-After the Red River Rebellion the Red River Expeditionary Force was sent to Manitoba to pacify the region (terrorized the Metis population. Led to more than half of the Metis in the red River to migrated west or south to the Dakotas)

-New communities in Saskatchewan and Alberta began to organize politically to protect their rights (formation of a citizen council in St. Laurent in 1873 that formalized governance)

-Government surveyors began assessing regions of Saskatchewan in 1882 (same problem arose as in 1870)

-Louis Riel returned from Montana and a second provisional government was declared to protect Metis rights. 

-by the 1880s government surveyors entering what is now Sask and Alberta (metis land title not being recognized, occupied land being sold by the Canadian government)

-Farmlands vital for subsistence with loss of buffalo 

-Government petitioned with no clear response 

-Delegation sent to Montana to bring back Louis Riel 

-Provisional Government of Saskatchewan established in May of 1885 to negotiate with Canadian Government 

-Canadian government sent NWMP and militia troops to meet the threat of the provisional government and Metis militia (included some members of regional Indigenous groups. Not all metis and indigenous groups were involved)

-Series of military engagements between March-May 1885 (military defeat of the provisional government at Batoche. Execution of Louis Riel)

Impact of 1885

-Led to the dispossession of the Metis people 

-Loss of land resulted in individuals living on road allowances between section- crown land 

-Loss of economic independence from the collapse of the fur trade and the regional commerce system (batoche a major commercial and transport hub)

-Loss of political influence and organization 

Metis Political Organization 

-Effort to organize politically began in the early part of the 20th century 

-1928- Metis association of Alberta 

-1983- Metis national council 

-1993 Metis nation sask 

Political Decisions 

-Constitution Act (1982) Section 35 (recognizes and affirms treaty rights to Metis people of Canada 

-The powley Decision (1993) (steve and roddy powley, metis hunter, were charged with killing a moose in ontario. Appealed on the basis of Section 35. The Supreme court ruled in powleys favor in 2003. Affirmed Metis rights to hunt for food. First time the supreme court affirmed Metis rights and rights to self-government and self-determination. 

-The Daniels Decision (2016) supreme court declared that Metis and non-status indigenous individuals are “indians” under subsection 91(24) of the Constitution Act 1867

-Batoche National Historic Site land transfer (2022)- Site of batoche declared a national historic site in 1923. Under control of the federal government and Parks Canada. Parks transferred the Western portion of the site to Metis Nation- Sask. 

Treaty

-Metis Nation-Sask negotiating self-government with the Canadian government (enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Nation to nation agreement)

-Kishchi Mashina Yikun Uschi Michif (sacred document from the Michif. Name gifted by Elders and Knowledge keepers)

-Currently being drafted

Inuit 

-Cultural origins of the Inuit in Canada go back 1000 years (descending from the thule people originating in Alaska. Moved eastward displacing the Dorset people. Reached greenland approximately 700 years ago)

-Population found in eastern Arctic, Quebec, and Labrador 

-Thule subsistence much like traditional Inuit subsistence seen today (sealing on open ice. Maritime resources, including bowhead whales. Caribous hunting in open water)

-Technology (development of harpoons. Harpoon floats)

-Transportation (dogsled, kayaks)

-Habitation (igloos during the winter months, warmers periods saw use of tents, driftwood and sod houses)

-Inukshuk (navigation marker)

European Contact 

-Possible ancestral inuit encountered Norse in Greenland 

-Colder global climate during the Little Ice Age (approximately 1300-1850 AD) forced Inuit groups inland to the tree line in the south 

-Raided Basque settlements for irons tools 

-Martin Frobisher (1576) Searching For the Northwest Passage. Landed at and overwinter at Baffin Island. Captured three individuals and brought them back to England.

-Sporadic contact continued for centuries (European whaling stations were raided for good. Also engaged in trade)

-Late 1700- Moravian Church established missions in Labrador 

-Contact and colonization resulted in higher mortality rates (no natural immunity from European diseases)

-Early 1800s saw continued expansion (hudson's Bay company established trading posts in the Arctic. William Parry Expedition 1820-21 documented Inuit life. 

Inuit and Canadian Government 

-With the transfer of Ruperts Land to the Canadian government the Northwest Territories was created (1870)

-Governed by the Northwest territories Council (created in 1875 with appointed members)

-North West Mounted Police expanded to the Arctic in 1904 (previously little governmental attention was paid to the region. Not considered Canadian citizens or falling under the Indian Act)

-Federal government management of Inuit groups moved through different departments until 1939 (supreme court placed Inuit under the jurisdiction of the Indian Act

-Government found it was costly to operate programmining in the remote arctic (dispersed populations)

-Adopted a policy of relocation- pre WW2 (moving families and communities to create urban centres. Allowed for services to be provided- social programs, medicine, etc.)

-Many Inuit agreed with the moves at the time 

-Also acted to assimilate Inuit groups (not allowed to return to home territories for decades)

-Post WW2 and the Cold War 

-Arctic became strategic territory in the conflict with the USSR (soviet bombers would have to cross the region if attacking US and Canada)

-Establishment of the Distant Early Warning Line (under joint command of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD))

-Brought increased European practices and values 

-Few jobs for Inuit in the projects despite promises

-1960s saw a resurgence of Inuit identity, politics, and efforts to regain rights and self-determination 

-Emerges from continued influx of Settler groups into the area and more Inuit individuals obtaining advanced educations and became more aware of their legal rights 

-Formation of the Indian and Eskimo Association (became the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada) 

-Goals of the Association ( research and petition for land right claims. Highlight social issues to protect Inuit peoples(health care, environment, climate change, economic development, language retention))

-Group now known as the Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami 

-Instrumental in the creation of Nunavut

Nunavut 

-First land claim for a new territory was submitted by the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada to the federal government in 1976 (inuit would have political control due to their population. Withdrawn due to complexity and concern of influence from southern consultants. 

-From there multiple organizations formed to negotiate land claims (NWT inuit claims commission 1977, Nunavut land claims projects 1979, Tunngavik fed 1982.)

-Continued area of contention was if the land claims should also include the political divisions of the area from the NWT. 

-Concept of a political division grew since the 1970s 

-Federal Electoral Boundaries Commission recommended dividing the NWT, with the eastern district of Nunatsiaq corresponding with the land claim for Nunavut.

-Inuit Tapirisat Corporation drafted a proposal for Political development (outlined four guarantees. Inuit ownership of land rich in non-renewable resources. Inuit power over land management. Inuit rights to resource royalties. Commitment from Ottawa to negotiate self-governance.

-resulted in a plebiscite in 1982 by the NWT Legislative assembly (80% approval)

-Followed the plebiscite the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut was formed to take leadership of the land claims negotiations

-Nunavut Constitutional Forum established to make a plan for division 

-All aspects of policies had to be agreed upon prior to split (resources, environment, governmental programs. Boundaries of the new territory)

-Agreement in principle finally agreed upon in 1990.

-Nunavut land claims agreement signed by the Tunngavik Federation and federal government negotiators 

-Nunavut Act and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act passed June 10th 1993 (transferred 1.1 billion dollars to the Inuit government over 14 years. Granted inuit ownership to over 350,000 sq kms. Granted inuit rights to hunt, fish and trap throughout the territory)

-Following the ratification in 1993 an implementation process was enacted 

-February 1999 first election to vote in members of the legislative assembly 9 premier is voted on from members of the elected legislative assembly)

-April 1st 1999 Nunavut separated from the Northwest Territories 

-January 2024- Devolution agreement signed (2 million sq km or land and water)

Tuesday March 4th, 2025

Writing assignment- 1800-2000 words- On Traditional knowledge, coexistence and co resistance by Stephanie Irlbacher-Fox.

Article summary- what are the major points, the central issue, and the conclusion made

Critique- did the author do a good job in making their argument? Why or why not? 

Due March 25th. Midterm next week 

Indigenous Culture and the Military 

-Conflict and conflict management is part of any culture 

-Indigenous societies placed high value on maintain relationships and mutuals respect between all living things and groups (diplomacy) 

-Periods will arise when violence arose 

-Conflict also played important roles in religious, political and social life

Reasons for Group Conflict 

• Protect territorial and national rights to territory 

• Control trade 

• Revenge (loss of groups members and resources, conflict can result if enemy resources or captives)

• Religious purposes (members in the societies required individuals to distinguish themselves in battle, replace group members to ease mourning)

• Personal reasons (means of acquiring status through bravery, avenue for wealth)

• Role of status seen in practice of Counting Coup(taking shit from the other person without killing your enemy) (obtain status through touching an enemy in battle or taking one of their possessions, gives more status than killing enemy, reflective of the focus on minimizing violence in Band and Tribal societies)

Indigenous Tactics 

• Reflective of the goals of conflict (obtaining or maintaining status of primary concern)

• Groups and Nations did work together in military actions (reflective of alliances)

• Leadership during periods of conflict placed in the hands of war chiefs (directed military actions of warriors)

• Warriors had a degree of autonomy in conflicts (obtain fame be noted for bravery)

• Larger militarization seen in some Indigenous societies in Canada 

• Found in nations that are more sedentary and produce a food surplus that is stored (target for raiding, increase to status also plays a role)

• Innovation in offensive and defensive military technology 

• Iroquois- corn, squash, beans

• West coasts nations- salmon 

European Tactics 

• Purpose is to obtain and maintain control of territory, resources, and groups 

• Accomplished through a strict chain of command within State-level societies (staffed by a full time military)

• Little autonomy for individual soldiers (status and commendations possible for acts of bravery, main goal of conflicts the objective established by the elite)

Post Contact Military Environment 

• Early contact with Europeans saw their incorporation into existing political and military alliances (French alliances with the Huron, Algonoquian, Montagnais, and Malecite. English and Iroquois)

• Introduction of alliances with European tactics and goods changed the nature of conflict (increased the blood shed, displacement from traditional territories, increased competition for trade resources) 

• Huron-Wendat Confederacy defeat by the Irquois due to the former not having access to firearms 1648-50 (large portions of the population displaced to Oklahoma, Kansas, and Michigan)

• Atsina (gros Ventre) raids against trade posts (companies trading firearms with Cree but not them. 1793-attempt at Manchester House (HBC), 1794-burning of South Branch House (HBC) and attempt against NWC post)

• Black foot expansion in Western Canada and the United States 

• Acquired horse from Spanish colonies in the south 

• Traded for firearms with the French in Canada 

• Engaged actively in preventing their enemies from acquiring either of these resources 

• Allowed for them to expand their territorial boundaries in all directions 

Post Treaty Military 

• Groups signing Treaty agreed to not take up any military actions against the Canadian government, Settlers, or other Indigenous Nations 

• Allowed for the Conflict free colonization of ceded lands 

• Maintained peaceful relationship despite mistreatment under the Indian Act (most leaders and groups did not engage in violence during 1885 Resistance)

• Actions of Individuals vs sanctioned responses 

• Language of the Treaties also served to undermine the sovereignty of individual Nations 

• Decisions to engage in conflicts rested with tribal leaders and war chiefs 

• Also served social and political roles in society 

• Removing the political and cultural autonomy of groups furthered the goals of cultural assimilation

Indigenous Groups and the Canadian Military 

• Indigenous group members have served in the the Canadian military since World War one 

• Order in COuncil in 1918 exempted Indigenous peoples from conscription under the Military Service Act (viewed as being not full citizens of canada)

• Individuals volunteered for service (were automatically enfranchised- lost their treaty rights. Did not equal compensation)

• Indigenous group members sought out to enlist (hunting skills)

Canadian Rangers 

• Formed in 1947 

• Reserved unit stationed in remote areas of Canada where it is not practical or economically effective to station regular forces 

• Composed largely of regional Inuit, Indigenous, and Metis personnel 

• Conduct patrols and surveillance to maintain Canadian sovereignty, perform search and rescue operations, inspect North Warning System 

• Act as guides, scouts, and subject matter experts for Canadian Forces 

• Uniform of red sweatshirt and ball cap 

Indigenous Interaction with the Military 

• Indigenous group members have been voluntarily enlisting in the Canadian military for over a century (recognition and equal compensation only occurring recently)

• Canadian military is also an aspect of the Canadian government (can be used in opposition of Indigenous interests of land claims 

• Oka Crisis 

Oka Crisis

• Also known as Kanesatake Resistance 

• 78 day standoff between Mohawk protestors and the RCMP, and the Canadian military (july-september 1990)

• Consultation did not take place since two previous land claims for the property were rejected 

• Development plans resulted in protests and eventually roadblocks were established to the area 

• Town asked the SQ to take down the barricades 

• Further blockades put up, with the SQ blocking off the area and the Kanesatake reserve blocking a bridge into Montreal suburbs 

• RCMP brought in mid July and the Canadian military in August at the request of the QUebec Premier 

• Marricades dismantled by September 2 but resistance and negotiation continued 

• Ended on Sept 26 when last individuals suddenly left the treatment centre 

• Resulted in five warriors being charged by the SQ, but only one was convicted and served time 

• One death and a minimum of 72 community members and 22 soldiers injured 

• Property in question was purchased by the federal government

Political Organizing 

• Political organization is a component of all cultures 

• Required to provide for the need of the group (territory, resources, identity)

• Establishes who it is who speaks for the group and how decisions are made 

Pre-Contact Organization 

• Groups throughout Turtle Island were Organized in Banda and Tribal structures 

• INTRAtribal (focused on managing community or nation affairs, decisions arrived upon through consensus, Respect and responsibility maintained between groups and members 

• INTERtribal (maintenance of social relations between Indigenous Nations)

• Intertribal affairs regulated through Councils (regular gathering of delegates from neighboring Nations, meet to discuss grievances, trade, territorial rights, highly adaptable to new circumstances, reaffirm relationships 

• Conducted in a manner that was respectful to all participants (reduced or eliminate conflict in an environment where anger could arise, behavioral and ceremonial protocols observed, time given to delegates to formulate proper responses to issues)

Political Confederacies 

• Confederacies could form through Councils (political and economic merger between Nations, nations retained autonomy but joined together due to mutual interests, strength in numbers)

• Blackfoot Confederacy (Siksika, Kainai, South Piikani, and North Piikani in western Canada) 

• Huron-Wendat Confederacy (five nations in the St.Lawrence- great Lakes region, had 25,000 members at its peak, allied with France, enemies of the Iroquois)

• Iroquois Confederacy (known as the five nations- Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. Later the six nations with the Tuscarora. Formed through their oral constitution, the Great Law of Peace, created by Deganawidah, the Great Peacemaker. Ontario, Quebec, and New york)

• Seven Nations (or seven fires, new France and St Lawrence area of Quebec. Onondaga, Mohawk, Abenaki, and Huron)

Colonial Influences 

• Colonial governmental approaches to political and diplomacy towards Indigenous groups began to shift in the early 1800s (treated less like sovereign nations and more like wards of the states)

• Indigenous concerns largely ignored until Confederations in 1867 (followed by the implementation of treaties)

• Groups attempted to organized themselves to have their concerns

First wave of Organization 

• 1870 to 1918

• Organization began in response to the gradual Enfranchisement Act(1869)- (stipulated that Chiefs be elected by adult males. Dictated inheritance-land and property went to man's children, if we had no children after a window of time everything went to the federal crown for the benefit of this First Nation. If enfranchised man had to declare a European style name and surname, goal was to change political structure to foster assimilation 

• Grand General Indian Council of Ontario and Quebec formed in response in 1870 (ojibwa and Mohawk. Concerned about the loss of traditional political autonomy. Proposed an alliance but conflicted on organization structures or policy. Ojibiwa wanted to petition the government to alter the Gradual Enfranchisement Act, while the Mohawk wanted it repealed. Position of working within a Settler governmental system resulted in (loss of political influence for women. Adoption of english as an operating language and the use of settler style meeting practices))

• Groups Contributed to the Indian Act

• Confederations of Tribes of the Mainland(1879) -adopted two main resolutions. Creations of schools that taught english, medical system funded through taxation.

• Sought to make treaty and alliance with the queen 

• Create a functional local government 

• Negative and fearful reaction from government and Settlers

• Indian Rights Association (1909)- British Columbia. Formed in response to unsuccessful petitions to Ottawa and London. Styled largely in the fashion of Settler organizations and not traditional forms. Address the lack of treaties with the government and the expansion of rail development- did not succeed due to the government addressing Indigenous groups as wards instead of sovereign entities. 

Second Wave of Organization 

• 1918-1960

• The First wave influenced the Second through: defining the land issues and lack of treaties in British Columbia. Trained the next generation of Indigenous leaders through the early organizations and through the labour movement. Helped create a nation wide pan-Indigenous identity through activism and groups from across Canada working together 

• Frederick O Loft and the League of Indians in Canada (Mohawk from the six nations reserve. Served as a lieutenant in the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Activist in the 1890s to create political organization to support Indigenous rights)

• writer and reporter prior to enlisting in the Canadian army

• Government viewed Loft and the LIC as a threat 

• Refused to meet with the organization 

• DUncan Scott, the Deputy Superintendent of the Department of Indian Affairs viewed him as a radical 

• LIC became defunct by the 1930s 

• Work of Fredrick Loft led to the creation of regional organizations to lobby for Indigenous rights 

• Groups found little political success but were more effective (more developed political organization. Began to refine their arguments with regard to treaty rights, land and resources right, and Indigenous Education)

• North American Indian Brotherhood(1944)- most effective organization of the period: obtaining recognition from the Canadian Government of a single Indigenous organization with equal powers of the federal government over their own affairs. Offering non-indigenous citizens of Canada the opportunity to cooperate with the NAIB to strength unity 

• Effective mobilization of membership and public exposure led to the federal government to investigate the continued validity of the Indian Act in a Special Joint Parliamentary Committee in 1946

• Concluded in 1948 with the Committee making recommendations including granting status Indians the ability to vote 

• Indigenous reactions to result ranged from disgust to optimism on the consultation process 

Third Wave of Organization 

• 1960-1995

• Period of further expansion and organization 

• Build upon the limited success of the Special Joint Parliamentary Committee

• Prime Minister John Diefenbaker removed the condition that Indigenous individuals had to be enfranchised to vote-1960 (opened the door to increase Indigenous involvement in Canadian federal politics)

• Formation of the National Indian Council-1961 (established as a national lobby group for First Nations. Represented ¾ major Indigenous groups in Canada. Treaty and status individuals, non-status individuals, Metis, Inuit were not involved). Goal of promoting unity among all Indigenous groups 

• As groups began to better articulate their demands mess commonalities were found among the groups 

• Mutually agreed to split in 1968 to better reflect the needs of all parties (status and treaty groups formed the national Indian Brotherhood. Non-status and Metis formed the Native Council of Canada. 

• Reorganization came during a period of controversy with Federal Indigenous Policy 

• The White Paper-1969 (stated goal was to eliminate the discriminatory legislation of the Indian Act. Would remove the concept of legal status for Indigenous individuals 

• Allowed them to be “free to develop Indian cultures in an environment of legal, social, and economic equality with other Cnandians 

• Proposed to: Eliminate Indian status. Dissolve the department of Indian affairs in five years. Abolish the Indian Act. Convert reserve land to private property that can be sold by the band or its members. Transfer responsibility for indigenous affairs and social programs from the federal government to the provinces and integrate these services into one that provides to all other Canadian citizens. Appoint a commissioner to address outstanding land claims and gradually terminate existing treaties.

• Indigenous leaders were opposed to the White Paper. Viewed it as an attempt to dismantle the relationship between the federal government and Indigenous groups 

• Proposal was seen as furthering the goals of assimilation and cultural genocide. Spurned Indigenous organization to action. White Paper withdrawn by the government in 1971 

• Post White Paper saw major developments 

• National Indian Brotherhood developments (their control of Indian Education policy paper, which began to introduce concepts of self government, is supported by Indian Affairs 

• In response to the need for the organization to be representative and accountable to all community members it reorganized into the Assembly 

• Increased awareness of Indigenous organization led to consultations during the process of repatriating the Canadian constitution

• Meech Lake Accord(1990)- amendment to the constitution that would have strengthen provincial power and declared Quebec a distinct society 

• Charlottetown Accord(1992)- second attempt to amend the constitutions. Recognized Quebec as a distinct society. Enshrined the right of Indigenous self government into the Constitution

Fourth Wave of Organization 

• 1995-present 

• Increased awareness of Indigenous rights and issues 

• Nisga’a Land claims Final agreement-(land claim on territory that was never formally added under Treaty. After 25 years of negotiation a final agreement was ratified in 2000)

• As of 2015, 26 land claims have been settled and three self- government agreements signed  

• Truth and reconciliation Commission of Canada(2008-2015)-commission established to document the history and impacts of the Canadian residential school system on Indigenous students and their families. National centre for truth and reconciliation established at the University of Manitoba

• Metis Nation- Sask Self- government Recognition and Implementation Agreement (2019, updated 2023)

• Grassroots organization 

• Idle no more Movement (began in 2012. Established by 3 indigenous and 1 non indigenous women in response to Treaty rights issues and federal and legislation. Omnibus Bill C-45 that altered the voting and approval procedures in relations to propose land designations in thIndian Act. Would make it easier for privatization and development to occur on reserve land. Most bands were not consulted and disagreed with the changes. Removal of protection from lakes and waterways. Protests and flash mobs to raise public awareness.