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Birds in Veterinary Practice – Comprehensive Notes (Part 1)

Overview: types of birds in veterinary practice

  • Passerines (small songbirds, e.g., canaries, finches)
    • Anisodactyl feet: three toes forward, one toe back; perching adaptation
    • > half of world species; considered the most fragile; stress easily; small size makes restraint challenging
  • Psittacines/cytisines (parrot family, hookbills)
    • Zygodactyl feet: two toes forward, two toes back; strong grasping ability
    • Most common birds seen in clinics; focus of this lecture
  • Galliforms (ground-nesters): chickens, turkeys, quail; increasingly seen as pets in urban settings
  • Raptors (birds of prey): wildlife, often referred to a wildlife rehabilitator; housing them requires state/federal compliance

Focus of this lecture: primarily cytisines (psittacines); still acknowledge other groups as possible encounters.

Parrots: overview, lifespan, and patient education

  • Parrots are trainable and can be taught to talk and perform tricks; highly valued as companion animals
  • Lifespan varies by species and size
    • Large macaws can live 80+ years in captivity
    • Passerines have shorter lifespans (typical range: 4–18 years)
  • Client education is critical: parrots may outlive their owners; discuss long-term commitments, housing, and enrichment

Common terminology in birds

  • Sex terms: hens (females), roosters (males), chicks (babies)
  • Pigeons/doves (specific terminology): fed via crop milk; babies called squabs
  • Crop milk is produced in the crop for squabs; terminology differs from other birds

Basic bird physiology: general notes

  • TPR variability: temperature, pulse, respiration vary widely by species; routine exams do not memorize one range for all
  • Examples of pulse ranges by species (illustrative, not exhaustive)
    • Hummingbirds: ~12 to ~1400 beats per minute
    • Turkeys: ~4 to ~7 beats per minute depending on literature
    • Cytisines (psittacines): commonly ~250–350 bpm, occasionally >400 bpm
  • Temperature in cytisines: typically 103–106 °F (39.4–41.1 °C); temperature is not routinely taken via cloacal exam due to tissue fragility and thermometer limitations
  • Body conditioning scoring: extrapolated from chickens (no cytisine-specific score)
    • Scale: 1 = underweight, 3 = overweight; assessment based on keel (sternum) and surrounding musculature/fat

Anatomy and notable features (high-level baseline)

  • Feathers and skin
    • Purpose: flight, protection, thermoregulation, communication, camouflage
    • Feather tracks (pterygi) and non-feathered areas (epterae) allow organized feather placement
    • Feather types: contour (flight/body), coverts, remiges (wing feathers), retrices (tail feathers), down (insulation), bristles (perioral/nostril area)
    • Primary, secondary, and tertiary flight feathers (wing anatomy)
    • Molt occurs at least once per year; old feathers replaced by new
    • Blood feathers: new feathers with large blood supply; breakage can cause life-threatening bleeding; often require hospital treatment and feather removal
  • Beak and dentition
    • Beak structure and trimming considerations for restraint and clinical procedures
  • Special glands and features
    • Uropygial (preen) gland: bilobed, at base of tail; secretes oil to preen and waterproof feathers, aids in vitamin D absorption
    • Most birds have a uropygial gland; ostriches, emus, pigeons, woodpeckers, and Amazon parrots may lack a functional gland
  • Respiratory and digestive systems (bird-specific highlights)
    • Diaphragm is absent; respiration relies on a coelomic cavity and intercostal muscles
    • Air sacs (nine total; four pairs and one singular) extend through the body to aid respiration and lightness
    • Pneumatic bones contain air sacs; bones are lighter but more fragile; common locations include humerus, skull, vertebrae, pelvis
    • Gas exchange does not occur in air sacs; exchange occurs in lungs
    • Coelom is a large single cavity; organisms like to avoid over-respiration restraint due to reliance on intercostal movement
    • Coelomic/culmination anatomy terms: coana (nasal slit at the top of the oral cavity) and glottis (laryngeal structure)
    • Trachea has complete cartilaginous rings (unlike dogs/cats); avoid cuffed endotracheal tubes in birds due to rigid rings and risk of tissue damage
    • Syrinx (voice box) is located at the trachea–bronchial junction; birds can produce diverse vocalizations
    • Crop (esophageal extension) may store food; proventriculus (true stomach) secretes acid/enzymes; ventriculus (gizzard) grinds food
    • Cloaca is a common exit for urine, feces, and reproductive secretions; vent is the external opening
  • Reproductive anatomy
    • Males: two testicles located in the coelom; left functional, right often rudimentary
    • Caponizing (surgical neutering) historically performed awake on some poultry; not recommended due to humane concerns and surgical risk
    • Females: two ovaries, left typically functional; right often rudimentary
    • Sexual dimorphism is rare in cytisines; Eclectus parrot is a notable exception
    • Sex determination: monomorphism is common; DNA sexing via a feather sample is possible for monomorphic species
    • Cloaca and mating: many psittacines lack a penis; mating involves cloacal contact and vent-to-vent exchange
  • Droppings and urine/urine components
    • Three components: liquid urine, white urates, and semi-solid feces; composition varies with diet
  • Senses and neural features
    • Five senses present; vision is highly developed; some species see into ultraviolet spectrum; eye types vary with diurnal/nocturnal habits
    • Nictitating membrane for blinking; ears are simpler than mammals but highly acute; ear openings are small and feather-covered
    • Taste buds are poorly developed; touch via skin and feather sensation is important; birds respond to feather-related stimuli
  • Nervous and immune system notes
    • Lymph nodes are absent or not as developed as in mammals
    • Red blood cells are nucleated (nRBCs); common observation in blood smears

Key concepts in bird respiration and exercise physiology

  • No diaphragm; lungs and air sacs create a continuous, two-cycle breathing system to meet high oxygen demands during flight
  • Air sacs expand/contract with intercostal muscles to drive air through lungs in a unidirectional flow
  • Pneumatic bones and air sacs contribute to reduced body weight for flight and enable reserve oxygen storage and distribution
  • Clinical caution: avoid over-restraining or blocking chest/abdomen during exams or restraint to prevent respiratory compromise
  • Two complete respiratory cycles per breath ensure continuous air movement and efficient gas exchange for high metabolic demand

Diet, beak formation, and foraging strategies

  • Beak shape mirrors diet and foraging behavior:
    • Passerines: small, seed-based diets common; are typically seed-eaters
    • Hookbills (parrots): strong beaks to crack nuts and forage; capable of varied foraging strategies depending on species
  • Diet and digestion specifics
    • Bird tongues are dry with limited saliva and taste buds; feeding strategy adapts to beak and digestive tract
    • Crop allows storage of food for high/metabolic rate birds; ensures food availability during high-energy demands
    • Proventriculus (true stomach) and ventriculus (gizzard) work together to digest and grind food
    • Grit/stone/grit intake is species-dependent; excessive grit can cause impaction in some birds
  • Diet recommendations
    • Pelleted diets tailored to species recommended; emphasize fresh vegetables (dark greens, artichokes, squash, carrots, broccoli, cauliflower) in moderation
    • Fresh fruits limited; some fruits high in sugar (e.g., bananas) can lead to picky eating; avoid over-reliance on sugary fruits
    • Grains (e.g., cooked pasta, quinoa, corn) acceptable in moderation
    • Nuts/seeds: great for training but high in fat; use as treats
    • Avoid potentially toxic foods: avoid chocolate, avocado skin/pits, onions, alcohol, mushrooms, tomatoes leaves/stems, salt, caffeine; dried uncooked beans contain hemagglutinins; cooked beans are generally safe
    • Do not fast birds for long periods due to rapid GI transit

Behavior and welfare in captivity

  • Normal behaviors
    • Perching with feet; climbing; tail wagging when happy; beak grinding when relaxed
    • Regurgitation can be a sign of affection toward owner or another bird
    • Tail wiggle with defecation; some birds deliberately train with anticipatory cues
  • Stress and fear management in clinical settings
    • Birds are highly sensitive to stress; create a calm environment (dim lights, closed doors/shades, minimal noise, few movements)
  • Beak and feather care
    • Feathers provide insulation, flight, and signaling; feather-picking/abnormal feather condition may indicate medical or behavioral issues
    • Medical causes of feather picking to rule out first (e.g., avian bornavirus, atherosclerosis, pancreatic insufficiency)
    • If behavioral, management may include enrichment, improved housing, reduced stress, or modifying mating/sexual behaviors
  • Social needs and isolation
    • Birds are social animals; isolation can lead to stress and behavioral issues; provide enrichment and human interaction

Restraint and safety during handling

  • General approach
    • Observe first (respiration, posture, perching), then plan restraint
    • Remove items from the cage; close doors and windows; cover mirrors to prevent impact/flight
  • Restraint by bird size
    • Passerines (small and fragile): use thin cloth or washcloth; very gentle restraint; never use excessive force; risk of death from stress if restrained too long
    • Large parrots: use larger towels; firmer grip; wings restrained; head restrained behind the mandibles; E-collars or specialized boards may be used for radiology under anesthesia
    • Raptors: should be restrained by trained professionals
  • Personal anecdote: restraint of a small canary can be very stressful; even short restraint (minutes) can cause significant stress; maintain patient welfare at all times
  • Practical restraint tips
    • Start with observation; keep room calm; prepare for possible rapid movements
    • Ensure safety for both bird and staff; avoid injury by choosing appropriate restraint materials and positions

Common clinical procedures in birds

  • Routine examinations can include: beak and nail trims, wing clipping requests, oral exams with a speculum, cloacal and coanal swabs for respiratory or digestive disease workups
  • Blood work
    • CBC and chemistry panels are commonly run to assess health status
    • IM injections: typically into the pectoral muscles (largest muscle); avoid excessive volume at a single site due to risk of tissue damage
    • Intravenous (IV) catheters: jugular vein is most common (right side is usually larger and more superficial); cutaneous ulnar/basilic veins or metatarsal veins may be used with anesthesia
    • Injections: general guideline for IM dose per site = 0.2$-$0.3 ext{ mL per site}; for large volumes, multiple sites are used
    • Subcutaneous fluids: commonly delivered in inguinal, lumbar, or pectoral regions
    • Blood collection volume (safety rule of thumb): for a healthy bird, safe volume is V_{ ext{safe}} = W imes 5.01 ext{ mL} where W is body weight in grams (note: this figure appears in the transcript; real-world values vary and should be confirmed with current clinical guidelines)
    • If the bird is ill/unhealthy, safe volume reduces to V_{ ext{safe}} = W imes 0.005 ext{ mL}
    • Intraosseous (IO) catheters: common site is the distal ulna; avoid pneumatic bones (e.g., humerus, some femurs) to prevent entry into the air system
  • Blood collection technique videos and demonstrations may be used for teaching; one-handed jugular approach shown in demonstrations

Common diseases and urgent signs in birds

  • When to seek medical attention
    • Unusual droppings (color, consistency), ruffled feathers, red or runny droppings, respiratory signs, eye discharge, not eating, open-mouth breathing, dirty feathers, weight loss, tail bobbing (respiratory distress), changes in vocalization
  • Specific diseases and conditions
    • Sour crop / crop stasis: foul breath, swollen crop; crop washes and antibiotics as needed
    • Avian bornavirus (Proventricular Dilatation Disease, PDD): neurologic signs (impaired motility, regurgitation), weight loss, lethargy; no definitive cure; prognosis poor
    • Reproductive diseases: cloacal prolapse, papilloma, dystocia/egg binding; yolk stroke/embolus; coelomitis; salpingo-hysterectomy may be used in refractory cases
    • Beak and feather disease (PBFD): variegated disease stages (acute, paracute, chronic); common in parakeets; no curative treatment; secondary infections common
    • Cardiac disease: atherosclerosis; diet-related; common in Amazon parrots and African grey; radiographs may aid diagnosis
    • Respiratory diseases: aspergillosis (fungal); inflammation from toxins (e.g., overheated non-stick cookware like Teflon), candles, aerosols; powder-down from some species can contribute to inflammatory processes; bacterial etiologies include E. coli and mycoplasma
    • Heavy metal toxicity: lead and zinc are notable risks in older homes and with toys/jewelry
  • Zoonoses (relevant to human health)
    • Psittacosis (parrot fever): a reportable bacterial respiratory infection in humans; some cytisine birds are asymptomatic carriers; CDC reporting guidance applies
    • Other potential zoonoses: West Nile virus, Salmonella, avian tuberculosis, histoplasmosis, etc. (reference to LipHaver resources for more details)

Routine care and preventive measures

  • Microchip implantation
    • Common in larger parrots; placement in pectoral muscles; sedation/anesthesia recommended for safety
  • Beak, wing, and nail care
    • Wing clipping: goal is to reduce flight risk while preserving the ability to hover and land safely; avoid over-trimming to maintain balance; trim symmetrically on both wings
    • Beak/nail trimming typically performed with specialized tools (e.g., Dremel) due to the vascular supply; avoid excessive trimming to prevent bleeding; have styptic powder ready
  • Wing trimming considerations
    • Some practices trim the outermost primaries to maintain safety while allowing controlled flight; trimming strategy should be agreed upon with owner and clinician
  • Training and owner education
    • Emphasize responsible husbandry, enrichment, and safety in the home
    • Regular veterinary checkups and vaccinations as appropriate; maintain a pelleted diet tailored to species

Practical takeaways for clinical practice

  • The dominant reason for birds in clinics is improper husbandry; prioritize education about housing, enrichment, diet, and social needs
  • Always perform a thorough physical exam with attention to the sear (nasal cavity) and the nape region as key observation points
  • Respect the unique anatomy and physiology of birds (e.g., respiratory system, lack of diaphragm, pneumatic bones, cloaca) to avoid iatrogenic injury during restraint and procedures
  • When in doubt, consult species-specific guidelines and a veterinary reference on avian medicine; use video resources and hands-on training to build competency in restraint, sampling, and common procedures
  • Reinforce the message to clients: maintaining proper husbandry, enrichment, and appropriate diet is central to reducing disease risk and improving welfare in pet birds

Quick reference: key numeric and factual takeaways

  • Psittacines: zygodactyl feet; commonly seen in clinics; care required for restraint and handling
  • Lifespans: large macaws ≈ 80+ years; passerines commonly 4–18 years
  • Respiratory physiology: no diaphragm; two complete respiratory cycles per breath; nine air sacs; pneumatic bones
  • Body parts and proportions: pectoral muscles ≈ 0.20 imes ext{body weight}; keel (sternum) supports flight muscles; sin sacrum in the spine supports stability
  • Temperature: cytisines typically T o [103, 106]^ ext{F} ext{ (≈ [39.4, 41.1]^ ext{C})}
  • Blood sampling guidelines (as stated): healthy bird safe blood volume ≈ V = W imes 5.01 ext{ mL} (W = weight in g); ill birds may be limited to V = W imes 0.005 ext{ mL}; IM injections: 0.2–0.3 ext{ mL per site}; jugular venipuncture common in right side
  • Blood feather risk: broken blood feathers can cause life-threatening bleeding; often require anesthesia and feather removal
  • Disease examples (select): PBFD, PDD (avian boronavirus/proventricular dilatation disease), aspergillosis, heavy metal toxicity (lead, zinc), psittacosis (parrot fever), crop disease, dystocia/egg binding

Reminders for exam preparation

  • Be prepared to distinguish passerines, psittacines, galliforms, and raptors; know typical restraint considerations and housing implications
  • Understand the major organ systems and their avian-specific adaptations (respiratory, digestive, reproductive, circulatory, sensory)
  • Memorize key terms: coana, coelom, syrinx, crop, proventriculus, ventriculus, cloaca, vent, uropygial gland, pterylae/apteriae, primary/secondary/tertiary feathers, blood feathers
  • Be able to discuss common clinical signs that warrant urgent evaluation and routine care strategies for birds in practice
  • Recognize the ethical and welfare considerations around reproductive management (e.g., caponizing historical practices) and the importance of humane care in veterinary settings