The Second World War and the Cold War

The Second World War and the Americas (1933-1945)

Hemispheric Reactions to the Events in Europe and Asia

• Inter-American Diplomacy:
  • Hemispheric Defense Conference (1939): Coordinated the defense of the Western Hemisphere due to threats from Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan). The U.S. advocated for collective defense, leading to Latin American countries committing to support each other in case of attacks.
  • Inter-American Reciprocal Assistance Act (1940): Formed the basis for cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America during WWII, ensuring mutual assistance in defending against external threats.
• Cooperation and Neutrality:
  • Neutrality Acts (1935–1939): U.S. laws aimed at keeping the country out of European conflicts by restricting arms sales, loans, and military aid to belligerent countries. Abandoned after the attack on Pearl Harbor.
  • Economic Embargoes: The U.S. imposed embargoes on Japan, Germany, and Italy, notably cutting off oil and steel exports to Japan, contributing to Japan's decision to attack Pearl Harbor in 1941.
• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy:
  • Purpose: Initiated in the 1930s to improve diplomatic relations with Latin American countries and reduce U.S. interventionist policies.
  • Effects: Reduced tensions with Latin America by promising non-intervention, leading to closer cooperation during WWII and securing the hemisphere from Axis influence.

Involvement of Two Countries of the Americas in WWII

• United States:
  • Entry into WWII (1941): Initially neutral, the U.S. entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Declared war on Japan, followed by declarations of war from Germany and Italy.
  • Lend-Lease Act (1941): Allowed the U.S. to send military aid to Allies like the UK and Soviet Union without officially entering the war, positioning the U.S. as the "Arsenal of Democracy."
  • War Effort at Home: Resulted in a massive shift in U.S. society, with women joining the workforce and African Americans contributing to the war effort. Spurred the U.S. economy and ended the Great Depression.
• Brazil:
  • Brazil’s Involvement: The first Latin American country to declare war on the Axis Powers in 1942, influenced by the prospect of American military and economic aid.
  • Brazilian Expeditionary Force: Sent troops to fight alongside the Allies in Italy, a substantial contribution from Latin America.
  • Vargas Regime: Getúlio Vargas, Brazil’s authoritarian leader, used the war to strengthen his regime and align Brazil more closely with the U.S. post-war.

Social Impact of WWII

• Women and Minorities:
  • Women in the Workforce: Women filled jobs in factories, shipyards, and other industries as men went to war, significantly changing gender roles.
  • Minorities: African Americans were enlisted in greater numbers. The Double V campaign promoted victory over fascism abroad and racism at home; however racial discrimination persisted throughout and after the war.
• Japanese Americans:
  • Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor due to fears of espionage, considered a violation of civil rights.
• Japanese Latin Americans and Canadians:
  • Many Japanese Latin Americans were deported to the U.S. for internment. Similar internment camps were set up in Canada, where Japanese Canadians faced significant discrimination.

U.S. Use of Atomic Weapons Against Japan

• Reasons for Use:
  • End the War Quickly: The U.S. believed atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki would force Japan to surrender, avoiding a costly invasion.
  • Avoid Soviet Influence: Fear that a prolonged war would allow the Soviet Union to gain influence in post-war Japan. The atomic bomb was a way to quickly end the war before Soviet intervention.
• Significance:
  • Nuclear Diplomacy: Marked the beginning of the nuclear age, with implications for international relations.
  • Moral Debate: The bombings resulted in immense civilian casualties and destruction, raising ethical questions about the use of such weapons.

Economic and Diplomatic Effects of WWII in the Americas

• United States:
  • Economic Impact: WWII transformed the U.S. into the world’s most powerful economic and military superpower. The war effort boosted the U.S. economy, leading to full recovery from the Great Depression.
  • Diplomatic Impact: The U.S. emerged as the leading global power, setting the stage for the Cold War rivalry with the Soviet Union.
• Mexico:
  • Economic Impact: Mexico benefitted from supplying materials like oil and minerals to the U.S. during the war and entered the wartime production market.
  • Diplomatic Impact: Mexico’s relationship with the U.S. strengthened, becoming a critical partner in the Allied war effort.

The Cold War and the Americas (1945-1981)

Truman: Containment and Its Implications

• Truman Doctrine (1947): The U.S. adopted a policy of containment to stop the spread of communism, particularly from the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine emphasized U.S. support for countries resisting communist influence (e.g., Greece and Turkey).
• McCarthyism: The rise of McCarthyism in the early 1950s, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy, created an atmosphere of fear in the U.S., as individuals suspected of being communists were persecuted. This had implications for U.S. foreign policy, as it led to extreme measures in confronting suspected communists.

Korean War (1950-1953): U.S. and Americas

• Reasons for U.S. Participation: The U.S. intervened in Korea to stop the spread of communism after North Korea, backed by the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea in 1950.
• Diplomatic and Political Outcomes: The war ended in a stalemate, with Korea remaining divided. The U.S. increased its military presence in Asia, strengthening its position in the Cold War against the Soviet Union.

Eisenhower and Dulles: New Look Policy

• New Look Policy (1950s): President Eisenhower’s defense strategy emphasized the use of nuclear weapons as a deterrent against Soviet aggression, reducing the need for conventional forces.
• Impact on Latin America: The U.S. supported authoritarian regimes in Latin America to prevent the spread of communism, such as in Guatemala, where the U.S. supported a coup in 1954 to overthrow a left-wing government.

U.S. Involvement in Vietnam

• Reasons for U.S. Involvement: The U.S. entered Vietnam to support the anti-communist government in South Vietnam, fearing that if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in Southeast Asia would follow (domino theory).
• Domestic Effects: The war led to widespread protests and divisions within the U.S., with the anti-war movement gaining momentum in the 1960s and early 1970s.

U.S. Foreign Policies from Kennedy to Carter

• Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress: Aimed at improving economic conditions in Latin America to prevent the spread of communism. While it had some success, it was not as effective as hoped.
• Nixon’s Covert Operations and Chile (1973): Nixon’s administration played a role in the Chilean coup, which overthrew the elected socialist government of Salvador Allende.
• Carter’s Human Rights Policy: President Jimmy Carter emphasized human rights in U.S. foreign policy. His administration supported democratic movements in Latin America and negotiated the Panama Canal Treaty, returning control of the canal to Panama by 2000.

Cold War in Cuba

• Cuban Revolution (1959): Fidel Castro overthrew the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista and established a communist government in Cuba, aligning with the Soviet Union.
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): The discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba led to a standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.