SAQ Terms
Causes of the Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution was a transformative period (1750–1850) that changed economies, societies, and the global balance of power. It originated in Britain before spreading to Europe, North America, and beyond.
Major Causes:
1. Agricultural Revolution (17th–18th Century)
Innovations like crop rotation, enclosure movement, and selective breeding led to more efficient food production.
The enclosure movement privatized common lands, pushing small farmers into cities to seek industrial jobs.
2. Population Growth
The decline in disease (smallpox vaccine, improved sanitation) and better nutrition led to higher life expectancy.
More people meant a larger workforce and increased demand for goods.
3. Natural Resources & Geography
Britain had abundant coal and iron deposits, essential for steam engines and metal production.
Rivers and harbors facilitated trade and transportation.
4. Technological Innovations
Steam Engine (James Watt, 1769): Powered factories, ships, and trains.
Spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves, 1764): Improved textile production.
Power Loom (Edmund Cartwright, 1787): Automated cloth weaving.
5. Capital and Banking System
Britain had a well-developed banking system that provided loans to entrepreneurs.
Profits from the Atlantic slave trade and colonies fueled industrial investment.
6. Transportation Infrastructure
Canals, roads, and railways enabled faster movement of goods and people.
The first steam-powered railway (Stockton & Darlington, 1825) revolutionized transport.
7. Political Stability & Economic Policies
Britain’s government supported property rights, free markets, and patent laws, fostering innovation.
No major wars on British soil during the 18th century meant stability for investment.
8. Global Trade & Colonial Expansion
British colonies (India, North America, Caribbean) supplied raw materials like cotton and sugar.
The Transatlantic trade provided markets for industrial goods.
Impact: Industrialization increased urbanization, economic growth, and global inequalities but also led to harsh working conditions and social upheaval.
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815):
A peace conference held after Napoleon’s defeat to restore stability in Europe.
Key Figures:
Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria) – The main architect.
Tzar Alexander I (Russia) – Advocated for a Holy Alliance of Christian monarchs.
Lord Castlereagh (Britain) – Sought to maintain balance.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (France) – Represented defeated France.
Goals:
Restore Monarchies – Legitimate kings (e.g., Bourbons in France) were reinstated.
Balance of Power – Prevent one nation from dominating Europe again.
Containment of France – Strengthened neighboring countries to prevent French aggression.
Suppress Revolutionary Ideas – Conservatism triumphed over liberalism and nationalism.
Territorial Changes:
Austria gained northern Italy and parts of Poland.
Prussia gained the Rhineland, strengthening German influence.
Russia took most of Poland.
Britain secured overseas colonies (Malta, Ceylon, Cape Colony).
The Concert of Europe:
A system of alliances between Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain to maintain peace.
Used military force to suppress revolutions (e.g., crushed Italian and Spanish uprisings).
Impact: Maintained stability for decades but suppressed nationalist movements, leading to future conflicts (e.g., German and Italian unification).
The Revolutions of 1848:
A series of political uprisings across Europe, driven by economic hardship, nationalism, and liberal demands.
Common Causes:
Economic Crisis (1846-47) – Poor harvests led to food shortages and unemployment.
Liberalism – Demands for constitutions, parliaments, and civil rights.
Nationalism – Ethnic groups sought independence (e.g., Germans, Italians, Hungarians).
Key Revolutions:
France: Overthrew King Louis-Philippe; established the Second Republic (later collapsed under Napoleon III).
Germany: The Frankfurt Parliament attempted unification but failed.
Italy: Revolts against Austrian rule failed.
Austrian Empire: Hungarian and Czech uprisings were crushed.
Outcome: Most revolutions failed, but they inspired later nationalist and democratic movements.
Romanticism (Late 18th – Mid-19th Century):
An artistic and intellectual movement reacting against Enlightenment rationalism and Industrialization.
Key Characteristics:
Emotion Over Reason – Focused on passion, intuition, and imagination.
Nature – Idealized as pure and spiritual.
Glorification of the Past – Interest in medievalism and folklore.
Nationalism – Celebrates cultural identity and history.
Famous Figures:
Literature: Mary Shelley (Frankenstein), Victor Hugo (Les Misérables).
Music: Beethoven, Chopin.
Art: Caspar David Friedrich (Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog).
Impact: Romanticism influenced nationalist movements and later artistic styles.
The Crimean War (1853-1856):
A war between Russia and an alliance of Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.
Causes:
Russian Expansionism – Aimed to control the declining Ottoman Empire.
Religious Disputes – Over Christian holy sites in Palestine.
European Balance of Power – Britain and France opposed Russian dominance.
Key Events:
Siege of Sevastopol (1854-55) – Russia’s main naval base fell.
Charge of the Light Brigade (1854) – A disastrous British cavalry attack.
Outcomes:
Treaty of Paris (1856) – Russia lost influence in the Black Sea.
Florence Nightingale revolutionized battlefield medicine.
Modernized Warfare – Use of railroads, photography, and telegraphs.
The Unification of Germany (1871):
Orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck through war and diplomacy.
Key Wars:
Danish War (1864) – Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark.
Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Prussia defeated Austria, leading to Northern Germany’s unification.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) – France’s defeat led to full German unification under Kaiser Wilhelm I.
Impact: Germany became a dominant European power.
The Communist Manifesto (1848):
Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, advocating for a proletarian revolution.
Key Ideas:
Class Struggle – History is defined by conflicts between the ruling and working class.
Abolition of Private Property – Advocated for a classless, communist society.
Proletarian Revolution – Workers should overthrow capitalism.
Impact: Inspired socialist and communist movements worldwide.
The Descent of Man (1871):
Charles Darwin’s book on human evolution and natural selection.
Key Ideas:
Humans evolved from ape-like ancestors.
Sexual selection explains traits like human intelligence and morality.
Impact: Challenged religious views, influencing science and philosophy.