1. What is a social network? What is the typical size of a social network? How do the features of our social network change in aging? 

Social networks • Humans have a history of working in small groups (e.g. tribes) (e.g. 150 members, according to Dunbar) • Importantly, quantity of relationships is not all that matters – quality matters too • While our ‘total social network’ can be large, the number of close relationships within is modest • There may be a limit to the network size we can manage • Networks can change • Technology, stress, age

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Older adults have fewer relationships which are based on different motives. Relationships in older adults are based more on emotion rather than information.

2. Define conformity and obedience. 

Obedience: Listening to a figure of authority (e.g. a persuasive politician or a strong sergeant) • Generally explicit 

• Conformity: Adopting the predominant belief or behavior of a group due to pressure from that group 

• Generally implicit 

• Obedience and conformity are not, by themselves, bad 

• Issues arise with blindly following without asking questions

3. Describe the concept of Individualistic and Collectivist societies. 

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Western societies tend towards individualism whereas Eastern societies tend towards collectivism • Individualism and collectivism may influence many behaviors (family attitudes, facial expressions, prosocial behaviors + even creativity) • Again, we must avoid stereotypes and focus on what is scientifically proven • Findings are often controversial

4. Discuss the features, strengths and weaknesses (when relevant) of the classic studies by Asch, Milgram and Zimbardo. 

Milgram Experiment • Participant acts a teacher (T) whom asks the learner (L) several questions • (T) is told by the experimenter (E) to give (L) a shock for wrong answers • (T) believes they are shocking (L) • (L) is an actor who pretends to be shocked and protests to the shocks! In spite of protests by (L), (T) will give shocks!

Asch’s study on conformity

Subjects participated in a study w/several confederates • Subject had to declare which of 3 lines was longer • Before the subject made their judgement, they heard several confederates make an incorrect judgment • Subjects readily conformed to the wrong opinion • Rate of conformity increased w/group size to a point

The Stanford Prison Study 

• Observational, not experimental • 24 participants were randomly assigned to roles of ‘prisoner’ and ‘guard’ whereas the head of the study was assigned the role of ‘superintendent’ • People reportedly became consumed in their roles, losing their own identity and behaving atypically • This study is one of the most popular studies in Psychology, but is also one of the most controversial and criticized

Though initially most participants believed that they were incapable of cruelty, cruel behaviors did emerge • Some guards (~33%) became aggressive, and were said to exhibit ‘sadistic-like’ tendencies • Forced prisoners to perform humiliating lineups, do pushups, sing, strip naked and clean toilets with their bare hands (partial list only) • The study – which was supposed to last two weeks – was prematurely terminated after six days

Criticisms • Small sample size (n) • Selection bias (whoever responded to the ad) • Demand characteristics + observer effect • Emphasis on qualitative, anecdotal reports that are difficult to verify and analyze quantitatively • Experimenter (Zimbardo) was a participant (warden) • Numerous ethical issues (has NOT been replicated)

5. For the following concepts, provide a definition, give an example (or examples) and propose a cause (when relevant):

   1. Social contagion

Social contagion

• When a belief rapidly spreads throughout a group

• Though the term is generally pejorative, the impact of a

contagion depends on the belief transmitted

• If the phenomenon spreads to an especially large

group, and the behaviors are irrational and harmful, the

term mass hysteria may be used

• Many examples

• Urban legends

• UFO reports starting in 1947

• Dissociative identity disorder in the 1970s

• Social contagion theories of depression* (L10)

2. Deindividuation

Deindividuation

• Tendency to engage in behavior atypical for us (but

consistent w/situational norms)

• Key factors are a feeling of anonymity and lack of

accountability

• Behavior when masked is a great example

• Children wearing masks more likely to take ‘forbidden candy’

• Presence of a mirror may reduce candy taken1

• Major examples are online behavior, crowd behavior

and the Stanford Prison Study

3. Bystander effect 

Bystander effect • Reduced likelihood to assist others when in groups • Many explanations: • Pluralistic ignorance (“maybe it’s just me, maybe it’s not really a problem”) • Diffusion of responsibility (“someone else will do it”) • Cost of intervention, which can be physical or psychological (e.g. feelings of judgment/vulnerability) • Bystander effects are among the strongest and most replicable effects in all of Psychology – not just Social Psychology1

4. Social loafing

Social loafing • Tendency to put in less effort/do less work in groups • Believed to be a variant of/related to the bystander effect (e.g. diffusion of responsibility) • Many examples: Cheerleaders are less loud in a group, people pull less hard on rope in a group, people generate fewer ideas/less creative ideas in a group • Cultural differences may exist; social loafing may be less evident in collectivist societies • Group members may feel more responsible for outcomes

5. Fundamental attribution error

When evaluating others, we consistently overestimate the role of dispositional factors. This is called fundamental attribution error and is one of the most relevant and consistent findings in the field. 

6. Describe Janis’ Groupthink theory. What are the features, strengths and weaknesses of this theory? 

Commentary • Influential model; some have argued groupthink has played a role in many major policy and corporate decisions throughout history1 • However, theory was based on anecdotal reports; experimental support is surprisingly scant2 • Theory has been increasingly criticized in recent years • Treatment options unclear • Janis proposed a ‘devil’s advocate’

7. Describe cults. What are some common misconceptions about cults? 

Cults • Groups that exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single cause • Heaven’s Gate is a famous example • Difficult to study due to their secretive nature, but some insights have been gained over the years • Several consistent features: • persuasive leader who inspires loyalty • members disconnected from the outside world • questions and dissent discouraged • training practices that gradually indoctrinate members

Misconceptions • Cults are easy to identify and define • Many groups seem to meet criteria, including AA • Most cults are dangerous to others • Most are peaceful to others (even if harmful to members), we tend to hear about only the most extreme ones • Most people in cults are mentally ill (FAE) • 33% (higher than normal), but the majority are not mentally ill • Interestingly, cult leaders are often mentally ill • Brainwashing is required (controversial)

8. Discuss prosocial behavior. Is punishment prosocial? What factors limit prosocial behavior?

Prosocial behavior • Voluntary behavior for the benefit of others (e.g. friends, family, strangers or enemies) • For today, assume altruistic = prosocial • Prosocial behaviors are associated w/higher psychological + physical well-being in the helper1-4 • It ‘feels good to be good’ • Many examples in everyday life • Buying a friend lunch, donating, care-taking a sick loved one

What about punishment?1-3 • Just punishments can also be regarded as prosocial • May discourage bad behavior, improving group’s well-being • May ‘educate’ the transgressor, giving them the opportunity to improve • Costly punishments (where the punisher pays a cost to deliver punishment) are perceived as more legitimate • Controversial idea • Some have argued that the main factor affecting the decision to punish is the perception of risk to the self • You are more likely to punish people you think will hurt you and/or your friends, but not others

What affects prosocial behavior? • Our mood (more common in good moods) • Our schedule (more common when we’re not rushed) • Our background (e.g. doctor, nurse…) • High trait extroversion (L07) and trait empathy • Characteristics of the person in need (matching) • egotistic reasons (relieving our own distress, experiencing the joy of others we’ve helped, being perceived as a “better person”) • Potential for escape (likely to help if we can’t leave) • we’ve been educated on bystander effects

9. Discuss aggression. What factors predict higher aggression?

Aggression • Behavior intended to harm others, either verbally or physically • The aggression that psychologists study using experimental designs (i.e. via a test) is different than the aggression in the “real world” (e.g. assault) • For ethical reasons, most studies of real-world aggression are correlative and not experimental • We are all capable of aggression, but the degree and severity is affected by many factors

Aggression is more likely if… • Male, especially for direct aggression (w/confrontation) • Provocation by the individual (specific) • Overall frustration (non-specific, lashing out at anyone) • Physiological arousal (w/provocation + frustration) • Reinforced by media (e.g. television, video games) and cues (e.g. guns, bats) • Alcohol and temperature

10. What is implicit discrimination? Give an example.

Unconscious process • A construct • Potential hidden barrier against certain groups • Suggested to occur everywhere – including in hiring + admissions

Implicit discrimination • Driven by associations of which the individual is unaware (implicit associations) • These learned associations may influence unconscious processing and drive decision-making • One technique for addressing implicit associations is the implicit associations test (IAT) • Several variations of the test1 ; critical to all is the measurement of reaction time (in seconds)

11. Discuss the features, strengths and weaknesses of the implicit association test (IAT). 

IAT • Subjects are shown a word or image and categorize it into one of two groups by hitting a key (“E” or “I”) • The reaction time taken for the keystroke is logged • Differences in response time may reflect learned associations and potential biases

Criticism of the IAT • Test-retest reliability concerns (your performance can change if you do the test more than once)1 • Correlation to discriminatory behavior unclear2 • What do we call this issue? • However, it has been argued that even weak effects in the individual become important on the societal level3 • IAT could be useful if included in a combination of other tests

12. Describe the availability and representativeness heuristics. 

A heuristic is an approach to decision-making, problem-solving or discovery • Heuristics can be executed quickly and don’t require a lot of information – but they aren’t always accurate

Representativeness Heuristic • Our tendency to organize information based on the similarity of that information to already established categories • We all use this heuristic, to an extent • To an extent, this heuristic can be both efficient and useful • For example, consider basic sorting activities

Useful for making judgments in certain situations • However, application to people often inaccurate and harmful • Linked to stereotypes • Beliefs – positive or negative – about group characteristics that are extended to all members of a group • Many commonly-held stereotypes are completely unsupported by data