Midterm 2 Lecture Notes

Learning Objectives for Midterm 2

Lecture 22 – Respiratory Systems

• Diffusion vs. Bulk Flow

  • Pros and cons of each mechanism for gas transport.

  • Understanding alternating roles of diffusion and bulk flow in O2 delivery to mitochondria.

• Fick's Law

  • Statement of Fick's Law, relating to O2 diffusion.

  • Explanation of its implications for gas exchanges in respiratory systems.

• Water vs. Air as Respiratory Environments

  • Key differences that affect gas exchange processes.

• Circulatory System Functions

  • Comparison of O2 delivery in mammals vs. insects: structural and functional differences.

• Gills vs. Lungs

  • Anatomical and physiological differences between gills (used by aquatic animals) and lungs (used by terrestrial animals).

• Inhalation and Exhalation

  • Active inhalation vs. passive exhalation in humans, illustrating how these processes work.

• Ventilation Control Mechanism

  • CO2 levels in blood as a regulatory mechanism, illustrating negative feedback in respiratory control.

Lecture 23 – Circulatory Systems

• Closed vs. Open Circulatory Systems

  • Definition and differences between these two types of circulatory systems across various species.

• Hemoglobin Function

  • Mechanism of increased O2 delivery during exercise in resting individuals via hemoglobin function.

• Blood Flow Redistribution

  • How the circulatory system adjusts blood flow to different organs depending on their activity levels.

• Heart Function in Exercise

  • Explanation of how the heart increases blood flow rate during physical exertion.

• Circulatory Plan Efficiency

  • Benefits of a serial circulation plan for O2 transport from respiratory organs to tissues.

• Microcirculation Perfusion Challenges

  • Issues faced in supplying blood to capillary networks in vertebrates.

• Evolution of Circulatory Systems

  • Overview of how circulatory systems have developed in various animal types.

Lecture 24 – Digestive Systems

• Essential Nutrients

  • Types of organic molecules required in animal diets.

• Importance of Essential Nutrients

  • Reasons why animals must consume certain nutrients throughout their lifespan.

• Animal Energy Needs

  • Fundamental reasons why animals require energy and its implications for survival.

• Metabolic Rate

  • Definition and measurement of metabolic rate, including factors affecting it.

• Effects of Exercise and Size on Metabolic Rate

  • How exercise intensity and animal body size influence metabolic rates.

• Fluid Compartments in Animals

  • Explaining one type of fluid compartment and its importance to physiology.

• Division of Labor

  • Concept and relevance of division of labor in physiology, particularly concerning the circulatory system.

• Chemical Energy to ATP Delivery

  • Mechanisms for transporting energy from nutrients to cells and ATP synthesis locations.

Lecture 25 – Skeletal Systems

• Skeletal Types

  • Comparing hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, and endoskeletons.

• Molting in Arthropods vs. Vertebrates

  • Reasons why molting occurs in arthropods but not in vertebrates.

• Osteocytes' Role in Bone Maintenance

  • How osteocytes contribute to the upkeep of bone structure.

• Joint Capabilities and Force Ratio

  • Relationship between load, force arm ratio, and the functional capabilities of different endoskeletal joints.

Lecture 26 – Innate Immunity

• Defense Mechanisms

  • Differentiating between innate and adaptive immunity techniques.

• Toll-like Receptor (TLR) Pathway

  • Overview of TLR roles in innate immune response.

• Immune System Cells

  • Identification of various blood and lymphoid cells involved in immune reactions.

• Nonspecific Defenses

  • Examples of physical, chemical, and cellular nonspecific defenses in the innate immunity system.

• PAMPs in Innate Defense

  • Role of Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns in triggering immune responses.

• Inflammatory Response Steps

  • Detailed steps involved in the inflammatory response process.

Lecture 27 – Humoral Immunity

• Features of Adaptive Immunity

  • Key characteristics that define adaptive immune response functionality.

• Interactions of Humoral and Cellular Immunity

  • Connections and dependencies between the two forms of immunity.

• Primary Immune Response

  • Process of generation for plasma and memory cells during primary immune responses.

• Antibody Structure

  • Understanding the structural features of antibodies.

• Genomic Rearrangements and Antibody Diversity

  • Mechanisms enabling variability in antibody structures.

• Antibody Classes

  • Differences among antibody classes; identifying the most prevalent class and its significance.

Lecture 28 – Cell-Mediated Immunity & HIV

• MHC Proteins in Humoral Response

  • Role of Major Histocompatibility Complex proteins in immune interactions.

• Transplantation and T Cells

  • Interaction of T cells and MHC proteins in organ transplants.

• Treg Activity Implications

  • Effects of abnormal Treg levels on immune function and response.

Lecture 29 – Endocrine System I

• Evolution of Nervous and Endocrine Systems

  • The rationale behind the development of both systems in animals.

• System Interaction

  • How the nervous system and endocrine system coordinate together.

• Chemical Control Scales

  • Differences between autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and pheromone signaling methods.

• Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

  • Distinguishing features and functions of endocrine and exocrine glands.

• Neuroendocrine Cells

  • Function of neuroendocrine cells as a bridge between bodily systems.

• Hormone Versatility

  • Understanding how a single hormone type can affect different body functions.

Lecture 30 – Endocrine System II

• Posterior Pituitary Gland

  • Characteristics of the posterior pituitary as a neurohemal organ.

• Endocrine Control Axis

  • Steps in a typical endocrine control axis with reference to the anterior pituitary.

• Negative Feedback in Endocrine Control

  • How negative feedback mechanisms regulate functions of the anterior pituitary.

• Insect Body Changes

  • Why insects undergo stage-like changes in body size and shape during development.

• Juvenile Hormone Role

  • Influence of juvenile hormone on insect maturation and development timing.

Lecture 31 – Animal Reproduction I

• Gametogenesis Differences

  • Comparison between male and female gametogenesis processes.

• Sex Determination Mechanisms

  • Overview of various mechanisms determining sex in animals.

• Fertilization Types

  • Advantages and disadvantages of internal vs. external fertilization methods.

• Key Reproduction Hormones

  • Identification of hormones essential for reproduction in both sexes and their roles.

Lecture 32 – Animal Reproduction II

• Reproductive Cycles

  • Differences between estrous and menstrual cycles as well as spontaneous vs. induced ovulation.

• Positive Feedback in Birth Process

  • How positive feedback mechanisms are crucial during mammalian childbirth.

• Delays in Reproduction

  • How controlled delays in reproductive processes can enhance success rates.

• Reproductive Timing in Annual Animals

  • Unique methods various animals utilize to time their reproduction within seasonal cycles.

Lecture 33 – Animal Development I

• Egg and Sperm Contributions

  • Outlining the different roles played by egg and sperm during fertilization.

• Fertilization Effects

  • Physiological changes that occur post-fertilization.

• Establishing Polarity

  • Mechanisms by which polarity is developed in fertilized eggs.

• Significance of Cleavage

  • Importance of cleavage in redistributing cytoplasmic determinants like transcription factors.

• Cleavage Patterns

  • Description of cleavage patterns in protostomes vs. deuterostomes.

• Blastula Stage in Embryos

  • Overview of typical blastula characteristics in low-yolk eggs like those from sea urchins.

• Cleavage in Diverse Egg Types

  • Comparison of complete cleavage in amphibian eggs and incomplete cleavage in birds to mammalian cleavage patterns.