BIO LAB FINAL
Dicot Root
Vascular bundle (xylem and phloem) (vascular cylinder)
Tracheids move away from the center
Phloem don't change in size
Surrounding the vascular bundle is the endodermis
Anyloputast - Chloroplast are storage plastis, storage sugar
Parenchyma cells - Support cells,
Pericycle responsible of making xylem and phloem , making cells
Epidermis covers the entire root
Apical memstern- at the end of the root, root cap, Stem cells that make cells, primary growth
Root cap - Mucus like substance = Root mucilage
Axillary Bud - Branching can occur, if damaged the buds can start growing, and contain cells that can become apical meristem
Dicot Stem
Candy corn like things are the vascular bundles
Vascular bundles surround the pit
Fibers - is not in root, allow the stem to stand up right
Xylem look bigger
Sclerenchyma fiber - Give strength to the stem
Collenchyma - Add flexibility, and is surrounded by the epidermis cells
Woody Dicot
In the center you have the pit with sugars and storage
Xylem and above that the phloem
Xylem is where we measure the tree rings
If the rings are not the same size because of weather
Outside the phloem are the periderm cells
Non-Woody Dicot
Do not have rings
Monocot stem
scattered vascular bundles
Leaf anatomy
Mesophyll cells - contain chlorophyll
The cells on the top will have more chloroplasts
The top columns are palisade mesophylls cells
Spongy mesophyll cells are the bottom cells that are all over the place
Loose arrangement
Allow gas exchange to take place
Veins of a leaf is the Vascular bundle
Waxy cuticles - is prevent the loss of water, at the top of the leaf
Stoma - gas openings on the bottom of the leaf, that are surrounded by guard cells, they open and close for gas exchange and water loss
Guard cells - they can shrink that opens the stoma, swelling closed the opening
Leaf Varieties
Parallel - broad long, parallel vein, monocot
Pinnate - narrow- wide to narrow
Palmate - pointed parts of the vein
Leaf Arrangement
Alternate (Spiral) - leafs switching sides from the stem
Opposite - two leafs that growing together on each node
Whorled - more than 2 leafs growing on same part of them stem
Pictures are in chapter 28
Clamshells
Umbo value facing to right i
From the inside is umbo is the opposite
Anterior adductor muscle is closer to the umbo
Filter is the gills
Water goes out the exccruent siphon
Worm
Brain
esophagus is behind the brain
Gonads
Large balls are the testis
Behind the testes are the ovaries which are white
Seminal vesicles carry the semen
The green line in the middle is the digestive system
Crayfish
Testes are separated male and female sexes
Walking legs has the
4 pairs of walking legs
2,3 pair act as a pinser
10 legs
Inside cepalothorax has feathering looking gill
First Swimmeretes larger than it its a male
If they all the same size is it a female
Grasshoppers
Seastar /Echinoderms
Only one that has a radial symmetry
Starfish Anatomy (Echinodermata) – Study Guide
1. Classification and General Traits
Phylum: Echinodermata
Class: Asteroidea (includes starfish)
Radial Symmetry: Adults exhibit pentaradial symmetry (five arms), but larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
Triploblastic: Three tissue layers.
Deuterostome Development: First embryonic opening becomes the anus.
Endoskeleton: Made of calcareous ossicles; provides structural support.
Water Vascular System: Unique to echinoderms; used for locomotion, feeding, and respiration.
2. External Anatomy
Oral Surface: Bottom side; contains the mouth at the center.
Aboral Surface: Top side; contains the madreporite (small circular plate for water intake).
Arms (Rays): Typically five, extend from a central disc.
Spines: Part of the endoskeleton, visible on the aboral surface.
Pedicellariae: Small pincer-like structures that remove debris and protect against parasites.
Dermal Branchiae (Skin Gills): Tiny projections on the aboral surface for respiration and excretion.
3. Water Vascular System Components
Madreporite: Circular sieve on aboral surface where water enters.
Stone Canal: Connects madreporite to ring canal.
Ring Canal: Circular canal around the central disc.
Radial Canals: Extend into each arm.
Lateral Canals: Connect radial canals to tube feet.
Ampullae: Bulb-like structures that control the extension and contraction of tube feet.
Tube Feet: Located in ambulacral grooves on oral side; used for movement and suction to surfaces.
4. Internal Anatomy
Digestive System:
Mouth → Esophagus → Cardiac Stomach (eversible for feeding).
Pyloric Stomach: Lies above the cardiac stomach.
Pyloric Caeca: Two large digestive glands in each arm.
Anus: Located on the aboral surface; not always functional, as waste can exit through the mouth.
Reproductive System:
Gonads: Located in each arm.
Dioecious: Separate sexes; external fertilization.
Nervous System:
No brain; nerve ring around mouth with radial nerves extending into each arm.
Sensory cells at the tips of arms.
Circulatory and Excretory Systems:
No complex circulatory system; coelomic fluid transports nutrients.
No true excretory organs; waste is diffused through body surfaces or skin gills.
5. Unique Features
Regeneration: Starfish can regenerate lost arms; central disc must be intact for full regeneration.
Locomotion: Tube feet create suction using hydraulic pressure from the water vascular system.
Feeding: Carnivorous; often feeds on bivalves like clams by everting its cardiac stomach into the prey’s shell.
6. Dissection Tips
Cut along one arm to view pyloric caeca and gonads.
Observe ambulacral grooves on oral side.
Look for the madreporite on the aboral surface to identify the start of the water vascular system.
Crayfish Anatomy (Cambarus) – Study Guide
1. Classification and General Traits
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Crustacea
Class: Malacostraca
Order: Decapoda
Body Plan: Bilateral symmetry; segmented body.
Exoskeleton: Hard chitinous shell that must be molted (ecdysis) for growth.
Tagmata: Body divided into two major parts:
Cephalothorax: Fused head and thorax.
Abdomen: Segmented, flexible part used for swimming.
2. External Anatomy
Carapace: Protective dorsal covering over cephalothorax.
Rostrum: Forward-projecting extension between the eyes.
Eyes: Compound; located on movable stalks.
Antennae: Long pair used for touch and equilibrium.
Antennules: Shorter pair used for balance and chemical sensing.
Chelipeds: Large claws (first pair of walking legs); used for defense and food handling.
Walking Legs: Four additional pairs attached to the cephalothorax.
Swimmerets:
Small appendages on the underside of the abdomen.
In males: First pair modified for sperm transfer.
In females: Used to carry eggs and young.
Telson: Central tail fin.
Uropods: Flat appendages on either side of telson; form a fan for swimming backward.
3. Internal Anatomy
Digestive System:
Mouth → Esophagus → Cardiac Stomach (with gastric mill for grinding food).
Pyloric Stomach: Filters digested material.
Digestive Glands (Hepatopancreas): Secretes enzymes and absorbs nutrients.
Intestine: Runs through abdomen and ends at the anus in the telson.
Circulatory System:
Open system: Blood is pumped into sinuses surrounding organs.
Heart: Dorsal, with openings called ostia.
Arteries: Carry hemolymph (blood-like fluid) to organs.
Respiratory System:
Gills: Feather-like structures located in gill chambers under the carapace.
Water enters through spaces between appendages and exits near the mouth.
Excretory System:
Green Glands (Antennal Glands): Located near the base of the antennae; excrete nitrogenous waste.
Nervous System:
Brain (Cerebral Ganglia): Located between the eyes.
Ventral Nerve Cord: Runs along the belly side.
Segmental Ganglia: Control localized functions in the body segments.
Reproductive System:
Separate sexes (Dioecious).
Male gonads: Paired testes.
Female gonads: Ovaries; eggs released between swimmerets.
Seminal receptacle: Present in females for sperm storage.
4. Unique Features
Molting (Ecdysis): Growth requires shedding the exoskeleton, leaving the crayfish vulnerable temporarily.
Defense & Escape: Can rapidly flick the tail (abdomen + uropods) to propel backward away from danger.
Feeding: Omnivorous scavengers; use mandibles and maxillipeds to manipulate and chew food.
5. Dissection Notes
Lift carapace to reveal:
Heart (dorsal)
Digestive glands (large, yellow)
Stomachs (cardiac and pyloric)
Remove cephalothorax carefully to examine green glands near the base of the antennae.
Observe gills attached to the base of legs under the carapace.
Earthworm Anatomy (Lumbricus terrestris) – Study Guide
1. Classification and General Traits
Phylum: Annelida
Class: Clitellata (includes earthworms and leeches)
Order: Haplotaxida
Symmetry: Bilateral
Body Structure: Segmented (metameric), cylindrical, and soft-bodied
Coelomate: True body cavity; fluid-filled coelom acts as a hydrostatic skeleton
Body Covered in Cuticle: Moist outer layer aids in respiration and protection
2. External Anatomy
Prostomium: Small lobe over the mouth; sensory function and soil penetration
Segments: Around 100–120; separated by annuli (rings)
Clitellum:
Thickened glandular segment (around segment 32–37)
Secretes mucus for reproduction and forms a cocoon
Setae: Tiny bristles on each segment (except first and last); aid in movement
Dorsal vs. Ventral Side:
Dorsal side darker
Ventral side lighter, contains genital pores
3. Internal Anatomy
Digestive System (Straight, complete tract):
Mouth: Ingests soil
Pharynx: Muscular, draws in food
Esophagus: Short tube
Crop: Storage chamber
Gizzard: Grinds food with small stones
Intestine: Digests and absorbs nutrients
Typhlosole: Internal fold in intestine that increases surface area for absorption
Anus: Excretes undigested soil and waste
Circulatory System:
Closed system
Blood vessels: Dorsal, ventral, and five pairs of aortic arches ("hearts") in segments 7–11
Blood contains hemoglobin (dissolved in plasma)
Respiratory System:
No specialized structures; gas exchange through moist skin
Excretory System:
Nephridia: Paired structures in each segment that filter waste from coelomic fluid
Waste exits via nephridiopores
Nervous System:
Cerebral Ganglia (brain) in segment 3
Ventral nerve cord with ganglia in each segment
Reproductive System:
Hermaphroditic (both male and female organs)
Seminal vesicles: Produce sperm
Seminal receptacles: Store received sperm
Copulation: Two worms align ventrally, exchange sperm, then separate
Cocoon Formation: Clitellum secretes mucous cocoon; eggs and sperm deposited as it slides off body
4. Locomotion
Moves using:
Longitudinal and circular muscles
Setae for anchoring
Alternating contraction of muscles creates peristaltic motion
5. Ecological Role
Aerates soil, enhances drainage, recycles organic material
Improves fertility through casting (waste excretions)
6. Dissection Tips
Make a mid-dorsal incision from the clitellum toward the anterior
Identify digestive structures in order
Observe aortic arches over the esophagus
Gently pull back intestines to reveal ventral nerve cord and reproductive organs
Clam Anatomy (Anodonta) – Study Guide
1. Classification and General Traits
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Symmetry: Bilateral
Coelomate: True body cavity
Body Plan: Soft-bodied, enclosed within two hinged shells (valves)
Habitat: Freshwater (Anodonta), buried in sediment
2. External Anatomy
Shell (Valves):
Made of calcium carbonate
Umbo: Oldest part of the shell; protrudes near the hinge
Growth Rings: Concentric, indicate age
Hinge Ligament: Joins the two valves dorsally; elastic recoil opens the shell when adductor muscles relax
Adductor Muscles:
Anterior and posterior pairs
Hold the shell closed with strong contraction
Mantle:
Thin tissue lining the inner shell
Secretes shell material
Forms inhalant and exhalant siphons for water flow in burrowing species
Periostracum: Outer proteinaceous layer of the shell
3. Internal Anatomy
Muscular Foot:
Large, tongue-shaped
Used for burrowing and locomotion
Retracted via specialized muscles
Gills:
Large, ciliated, W-shaped structures
Primary function: Gas exchange
Secondary function: Feeding (filter-feeding)
Covered by the mantle cavity
Water Flow Pathway:
Incurrent Siphon: Brings water into the mantle cavity
Excurrent Siphon: Expels filtered water and waste
Water flows over gills → cilia trap food → transferred to labial palps → mouth
Feeding & Digestive System:
Mouth: Located near anterior adductor muscle
Labial Palps: Guide food from gills to mouth
Esophagus: Short tube leading to stomach
Stomach: Digestive enzymes added; crystalline style aids in food mixing
Digestive Gland: Greenish tissue surrounding the stomach; secretes enzymes
Intestine: Loops through visceral mass and pericardial cavity
Anus: Empties near the excurrent siphon
Circulatory System:
Open system
Heart: 3 chambers (1 ventricle, 2 auricles)
Enclosed in the pericardial cavity
Hemolymph (blood) is pumped into open sinuses around organs
Excretory System:
Kidneys (Nephridia): Filter metabolic waste from the blood and empty it into mantle cavity
Reproductive System:
Dioecious: Separate sexes
Gonads: Located within the visceral mass
External fertilization: Sperm released into water and enter females through siphons
Glochidia Larvae: Parasitic larval stage that attaches to fish gills for dispersal
Nervous System:
Poorly developed
Consists of paired ganglia (cerebral, pedal, visceral) connected by nerve cords
4. Unique Features
No Head or Radula: Unlike other mollusks; adapted for sedentary filter-feeding lifestyle
Byssal Threads: In some species, secreted to anchor to surfaces
Shell Closure: Powerful adductor muscles maintain shell tightness for defense
5. Dissection Tips
Open shell by cutting adductor muscles
Examine mantle, gills, and foot
Look for labial palps near the mouth
Gently remove digestive gland to observe stomach and intestine
Lift heart and note pericardial sac
Locate nephridia and gonads in the visceral mass