astronomy
- The branch of science that deals with the study of celestial objects, the
universe, the heavens.
astrology
- A pseudoscience that attempts to predict events by the study of the
movement of stars and planets.
star charts
- These are maps of the nighttime sky showing constellations and stars.
They have been used for many centuries by navigators.
Ptolemy
- A 100’s CE Greek-Egyptian astronomer and cartographer who did
extensive work in astronomy and supported the geocentric theory of
how the universe operated. He also drew many of the most used
portolani (maps).
geocentric theory
- An ancient scientific theory that the earth is at the center of the
universe and that all heavenly objects revolve around it.
heliocentric theory
- A scientific theory that the sun, not the earth, is at the center of our
universe and that the earth revolves around the sun, not the other way
around.
elliptical
- An enclosed circle that is oval in shape.
telescope
- A scientific tool used to enhance one’s sight when observing objects in
the sky.
lunar
- Of, or pertaining to the moon.
solar
- Of, or pertaining to the sun.
Inquisition
- Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities to root out
anyone suspected of holding views that contradicted Catholic
teachings. The courts could use torture and death to enforce their
power.
heresy
- To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a
religious community.
recant
- To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported;
to take back something once proclaimed.
alchemy
- A forerunner of chemistry, it was focused on the transformation of
matter, especially base metals, such as lead, into gold.
Universal Laws
- A belief in physics that there are scientific rules that are true
everywhere and for all time. Gravity is a prime example.
gravity
- A natural phenomenon in which all objects with mass and energy are
drawn towards one another.
plagiarize
- To take credit for the work of someone else and to pass it off as your
own; to copy.
mechanistic
- Theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic
terms.
anatomy
- The branch of science that deals with the study of the bodily structure
of humans and other animals.
Galen
- A 100’s CE Greek physician whose ideas about anatomy and medicine
dominated medical theories for over 1,000 years.
bloodletting
- The now discredited practice of withdrawing blood from a patient to
treat or prevent illness or disease.
folk remedies
- The use of herbs, foods, and household items to treat illnesses and
disease by medical laymen. Some have shown effectiveness, others
none.
circulatory system
- The complex system of veins and arteries that move blood through the
body.
entomology
- the branch of zoology concerned with the study of insects.
metamorphosis
- In insects or amphibians, the transformation from an immature form to
an adult form in two or more distinct stages.
Smallpox
- A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful
blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.
inoculation
- A method of injecting immunities to a particular disease directly into the
body.
querelles de femmes
- Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in
European society.
midwife
- Historically, a woman trained in the care of expecting mothers and in
the delivery of babies.
Index
- First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that
Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.
Rationalism
- The theory that opinions or actions should be based on reason and
knowledge rather than on religious beliefs or emotional responses.
cogito ergo sum
- Famous Latin expression credited to Descartes; it translates as “I think,
therefore I am.”
Empiricism
- The theory that all knowledge comes from experience and evidence
rather than from tradition.
Scientific Method
- Radical new way of developing and confirming knowledge, developed
in the 1600’s and credited to Sir Francis Bacon. It involves a three-
step process of hypothesis, experimentation, new hypothesis.
Scientific Societies
- National scientific organizations, such as the British Royal Society and
the French Academy, that bring together the leading scientists to share
and collaborate.
Enlightenment
- An European intellectual movement of the 17 th and 18 th centuries in
which ideas of God, nature, reason, and humanity were challenged
and reassessed. It was predominantly associated with France.
philosophes
- The French term for “philosopher,” it is used to describe the leading
intellects of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and
Rousseau.
relativism
- The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to
culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.
“noble savage”
- An Enlightenment idea, associated with Rousseau, that believed that
early and primitive man was free from sin, materialistic desire, and was
more happy and free than the supposedly civilized Europeans.
censorship
- The suppression of any part of a book, publication, film, or work of art
because of perceived offensive political, sexual, or religious content.
salon
- Fashionable rooms in Parisian homes, run by elegant women, where
the ideas of the Enlightenment could be debated and discussed by
both genders.
separation of powers
- The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s
powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and
legislative.
Deism
- A philosophical movement of the 18 th century that believed in a Creator
being (God) but rejected the Christian/Jewish/Muslim concept of a
redeemer God.
Enlightened Absolutism
- Voltaire’s political idea that the ideal form of government was one
where the monarch possessed all power, but used it wisely for the
benefit of their subjects. Many monarchs considered themselves to be
examples of such a ruler.
anti-clerical
- To be opposed to the power of religious authorities.
natural state
- Rousseau argued that people who lived in a morally neutral, simple
state in harmony with the natural world around him was happier than
Europeans. He was inspired by the example of Native American and
South Pacific cultures.
general will
- A political philosophy associated with Rousseau that argued that
people share a common goal for personal and communal happiness
and progress.
physiocrats
- 17 th and 18 th century philosophers who dedicated their studies to
economics. Adam Smith was the best example of a physiocrat.