Semester 2 Final Hon. World History

1. Ancient Rome

Geography and Founding

• Geographic Features: Surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, and the Adriatic Sea. The Alps serve as a natural border to the north, providing protection from invaders.
  
  

• Mythical Founding: Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the god Mars, were saved by a wolf and eventually founded the city of Rome after Romulus defeated Remus in a dispute.
  
  

Expansion and Conflict

• Early Republic: Initially a monarchy, Rome transitioned to a republic in 509 BCE after the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud. This republic saw a significant division between the Patricians and Plebeians, with the Patricians (wealthy landowners) holding most of the power.
  
  

• The Punic Wars: A series of three wars between Rome and Carthage from 264 BCE to 146 BCE. Rome emerged victorious, expanding its dominance across the Mediterranean.
  
  

Julian Era and His Successors

• Rise of Julius Caesar: Julius Caesar, initially a general, took control as consul and later dictator. His assassination in 44 BCE led to the end of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus.
  
  

• Prominent Emperors: Key figures include Trajan, who expanded social welfare, and Hadrian, who fortified Roman boundaries with constructions like Hadrian's Wall.
  
  

Golden Age of Rome

• Caesar Augustus Rule: Marked the beginning of a 150-year peace known as the Pax Romana. This era saw the expansion of the empire, improvement in taxation systems, and construction of significant infrastructures like aqueducts and public buildings.
  
  

Christianity and Its Impact

• Spread of Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth preached love and forgiveness, attracting a large following. Post his execution by the Roman authorities, Christianity continued to spread, facing severe persecution yet eventually becoming the empire's official religion under Constantine.
  
  

Fall of Rome

• Reasons for Decline: Economic troubles such as inflation and debasement of currency, coupled with overexpansion, reliance on mercenaries, and a series of weak leaders, led to Rome's downfall in 476 CE with the sacking by Germanic tribes.
  
  

2. Feudal Japan

Geographic Context and Early History

• Geographic Features: Japan comprises over 4,000 islands, with the four main ones being Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Early settlements date back to 30,000 BCE, with significant cultural and technological advancements beginning in 300 BCE.
  
  

Social Structure and Feudal System

• Hierarchy and Power: The emperor, though revered, held no real power, which was concentrated in the hands of the shogun. Below the shogun were daimyos, served by samurais who adhered to the Bushido Code.
  
  

• Samurai and Bushido: Samurai were committed to personal honor and loyalty to their lords. Those who lost their masters became ronin, living as mercenaries or seeking new employment.
  
  

Cultural Aspects and Beliefs

• Cultural Practices: Art forms such as Haiku poetry, woodblock printing, and Noh theatre flourished. Cuisine relied heavily on rice, fish, and vegetables.
  
  

• Religious Beliefs: Indigenous Shintoism emphasized a deep respect for nature, while Zen Buddhism, which focused on meditation and discipline, also gained prominence.
  
  

3. Islamic Achievements

Scientific and Mathematical Innovations

• Numerical Systems: Islamic scholars adopted and disseminated the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, which included the concept of zero.
  
  

• Algebra and Chemistry: Contributions include solving linear and quadratic equations and discoveries in chemical compounds.
  
  

Cultural Contributions

• Literature and Art: Islamic art used geometric and floral patterns. Literary works like The Arabian Nights are significant cultural contributions.
  
  

• Advancements in Navigation: Innovations like the improved astrolabe helped sailors determine direction and location accurately.
  
  

Architectural Marvels

• Mosques and Palaces: Islamic architecture included domes, tile work, and geometric designs, seen in structures like the Hagia Sophia.
  
  

4. The Age of Exploration

Beginnings of Exploration

• Motivations: Driven by the need for new trade routes, desire for Asian goods, spread of Christianity, and pursuit of wealth and expansion.
  
  

Key Figures

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Established navigation schools in Portugal.
  
  

• Vasco da Gama: First European to reach India via the Cape of Good Hope.
  
  

• Christopher Columbus: Reached the Caribbean in 1492, funded by Spain.
  
  

• Amerigo Vespucci: Recognized the New World, leading to its name.
  
  

• Ferdinand Magellan: Led the first circumnavigation of the globe.
  
  

Notable Explorers

• Juan Ponce de Leon: Explored Florida.
  
  

• Hernando de Soto: Found the Mississippi River.
  
  

• John Cabot: Claimed land for England.
  
  

• Henry Hudson: Discovered Hudson Bay.
  
  

• Sieur de La Salle: Claimed the Mississippi region for France.
  
  

Conquests and Empires

• Hernán Cortés: Conquered the Aztecs.
  
  

• Francisco Pizarro: Defeated the Incas.
  
  

Encomienda System

• Definition: Spanish system to regulate Native labor.
  
  

• Social Structure: Encomenderos at the top, enslaved Native Americans at the bottom.
  
  

5. African Geography and Early Societies

Geographic Overview

• Scope: Second-largest continent with over 1,000 ethnic groups.
  
  

• Features: Sahara Desert, Savanna, Congo River, Nile River, Lake Victoria, and Kalahari Desert.
  
  

Early African Societies

• Organization: Clan-based, often nomadic. Animism was common. Oral history preserved by griots.
  
  

Notable Civilizations

• Nok: Known for iron smelting.
  
  

• Aksum: Dominated Red Sea trade under King Ezana.
  
  

• Ghana Empire: Wealthy from gold and salt trade.
  
  

• Mali Empire: Flourished under Mansa Musa.
  
  

• Songhai Empire: Controlled trade; fell due to firearms.
  
  

• Great Zimbabwe: Known for stone architecture and trade; declined from soil exhaustion.
  
  

6. The Enlightenment

Introduction

• Intellectual movement of the 17th–18th centuries focusing on reason and logic.
  
  

Key Philosophers

• Thomas Hobbes: Advocated a social contract for order.
  
  

• John Locke: Promoted natural rights and right to overthrow governments.
  
  

• Montesquieu: Proposed separation of powers.
  
  

• Voltaire: Championed freedom of speech and religion.
  
  

• Rousseau: Advocated for general will and direct democracy.
  
  

• Beccaria: Opposed torture and cruel punishment.
  
  

• Mary Wollstonecraft: Fought for women’s rights and education.
  
  

Spread of Ideas

• Salons: Places for intellectual discussion.
  
  

• Diderot’s Encyclopedia: Summarized Enlightenment thought.
  
  

Art and Music

• Baroque gave way to Neoclassicism. Rise of Mozart and Beethoven.
  
  

Legacy

• Influenced American and French Revolutions.
  
  

• Led to modern governance concepts: progress, secularism, individualism.
  
  

7. Early Civilizations of the Americas

Migration Theories

• Via Bering land bridge, coastal boats, or Pacific crossings.
  
  

Agricultural Beginnings

• Farming began by 8000 B.C.E., maize and beans by 3000 B.C.E.
  
  

Mesoamerican Civilizations

• Olmec: 1500–400 B.C.E., known for carved heads and trade.
  
  

• Teotihuacan: 400–600 C.E., large urban center.
  
  

• Maya: Peaked 325–900 C.E., known for math, writing, and calendars.