The French and Indian War and Its Aftermath
The French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)
The French and Indian War was a North American conflict within the larger imperial war between Great Britain and France known as the Seven Years’ War.
Key Concept #1: The French and Indian War
In North America during the 1750s, Great Britain’s chief rival colonial power was France.
The Ohio River Valley, which was rich in fertile land and resources, was a significant area of dispute.
New France
New France had about 55,000 colonists in Canada.
Most colonists did not aim to build towns or raise families in the New World.
French settlements mainly included military forts and a couple of port cities such as Montreal and Quebec along the St. Lawrence River.
British Colonists
Great Britain had around 1,000,000 colonists.
The original colonies were becoming overcrowded, motivating British settlers to push westward into the Ohio River Valley claimed by France.
In 1749, Virginia's government granted 500,000 acres in the Ohio River Valley to the Ohio Company, owned by wealthy Virginia planter families.
Outbreak of War
The French-British conflict escalated in 1754.
The French built Fort Duquesne at the junction of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio rivers (the future site of Pittsburgh).
Due to the land grant to the Ohio Company, Virginia's militia, led by George Washington, was sent to evict the French.
Washington established a military base about 40 miles from Fort Duquesne and attacked a small group of French soldiers in May 1754.
A larger battle occurred in July, where Washington was forced to surrender, marking the opening battles of the French and Indian War.
Albany Plan of Union
At a Board of Trade meeting in 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union, which suggested forming “one general government be formed in America.”
The plan included establishing a continental assembly to manage trade, policy toward Native Americans, and defense in the colonies.
Although the plan was not considered due to concerns about compromising the power of the colonial assemblies, it laid the groundwork for the Continental Congress in 1774.
Military Campaigns and Key Events
British General Braddock's Attack
In 1755, British General Braddock attacked Fort Duquesne but was ambushed by French soldiers and their Native American allies. Braddock was killed, leading to a retreat by the British army who were unaccustomed to guerrilla warfare, eroding colonists’ faith in their army.
From 1755 to 1756, the British army suffered several defeats to the French and Native American alliance.
William Pitt's Leadership
In 1757, King George II appointed William Pitt to lead the British colonial army.
Under Pitt’s leadership, the British began winning significant battles, which prompted the powerful Iroquois Confederacy to support the British forces.
Pitt’s troops captured Fort Duquesne, which was later renamed Fort Pitt.
The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Five Nations or later Six Nations, included tribes from upper New York state and the Great Lakes region, playing a strategic role in the conflict.
Fall of Quebec
In 1759, British troops led by General James Wolfe scaled the cliffs protecting Quebec. After surprising the French, the British won the battle on the Plains of Abraham.
The British set a blockade of the St. Lawrence River, preventing French reinforcements from reaching Quebec settlements. Following this victory, Montreal was captured, concluding major hostilities in the war.
Treaty of Paris, 1763
The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1763, officially ended the French and Indian War.
The treaty terms included:
British claims to all North America east of the Mississippi River.
Florida ceded to Britain from Spain, a French ally, with Spain receiving land west of the Mississippi, including New Orleans.
France retained its West Indies sugar colonies and Newfoundland territory.
Native American Resistance
In 1763, Neolin, a prophet of the Delaware tribe, called for the expulsion of all white-skinned invaders from the Ohio Valley after a vision.
Inspired by Neolin, Ottawa leader Pontiac captured eight British forts in the Ohio Valley, leading to Pontiac’s War, during which hundreds of white settlers were killed.
In retaliation, British officers distributed smallpox-infested blankets to Native American leaders during peace negotiations, leading to weakened tribes that eventually negotiated separate peace treaties with the British.
By 1765, Native American resistance in the Ohio Valley ended.
Proclamation of 1763
The British government issued the Proclamation of 1763 to appease Native Americans, banning all white settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
This established a north-south Proclamation Line along the mountains, which was difficult to enforce, as colonists continued to move westward.
Key Concept #2: Taxes and Restrictions
King George III ascended to the British throne in 1760, adopting a mercantilist perspective toward the American colonies, viewing them primarily as a source of revenue.
Britain had accrued a debt of £150 million fighting the war, necessitating revenue generation to repay lenders.
End of Salutary Neglect
After the French and Indian War, Britain ceased its policy of salutary neglect in the colonies, stationing 10,000 troops in its territories to protect them, although many colonists viewed this as a potential threat.
Writs of Assistance
In 1761, the Massachusetts royal governor authorized writs of assistance, granting British officials the authority to search any ship or building, including merchant homes. This enraged many Boston merchants.
Taxation Policies
Beginning in 1764, the British government, under Prime Minister George Grenville, imposed a series of taxes on the colonies to alleviate debt.
Sugar Act (1764)
The Sugar Act enforced a tax on sugar, molasses, and various imported products from non-British Caribbean sources.
New taxes were also imposed on imports like foreign textiles, wines, coffee, and indigo, intending to curtail smuggling previously rampant during salutary neglect.
Stamp Act (1765)
The Stamp Act required colonists to purchase special stamped paper for legal documents, licenses, newspapers, pamphlets, and more, including duties on playing cards and dice.
Violators faced trials in colonial courts; this direct tax ignited widespread colonial opposition and organized resistance, leading to the slogan "No taxation without representation."
Protests increased, often led by the Sons of Liberty, resulting in the resignation of stamp tax distributors and the act's repeal on March 18, 1766. Despite this, Parliament affirmed legislative power over the colonies in the Declaratory Act.
Tea Act (1773)
The Tea Act, part of the Townshend Acts, aimed to alleviate excess tea supply held by the financially struggling British East India Company, thus reducing the price of legal tea and undercutting smuggled alternatives, which made up 85% of tea sold in America.
Key Concept #3: Acts of Rebellion
Sons of Liberty
In August 1765, the Sons of Liberty, led by prominent figures like Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and John Adams, organized in Boston to resist the Stamp Act.
Made up of various local artisans, laborers, and merchants, they harassed British officials and distributed revolutionary writings, spreading opposition to British policies.
Committees of Correspondence
Formed in 1764, these secret groups organized by elite Patriot leaders became more influential than colonial legislatures by 1773. They informed colonists about shared threats, rallied for protests, and established cooperative strategies, forming a foundation for a political union.
Boston Tea Party (1773)
On December 16, 1773, members of the Sons of Liberty disguised as Native Americans dumped 18,000 pounds of East India Company tea into Boston Harbor in protest against the Tea Act.
In response, Boston was placed under martial law, and the Coercive Acts (referred to as Intolerable Acts) were enacted in 1774.
First Continental Congress
Convened in September 1774 in Philadelphia, this body included representatives from all colonies except Georgia. Responses included:
Drafting a declaration of colonial rights.
Demanding repeal of the Coercive Acts and limiting British control to trade.
Approving a total boycott of British goods.
Declaring readiness to resist force with armed action if attacked by Britain.
Committees of Safety
Following the First Continental Congress, these committees planned and executed actions against perceived enemies of American liberty, involving ordinary citizens in political and military mobilization.
The Regulators (1768-1771)
Wealthy colonists in North and South Carolina formed the Regulators to protest underrepresentation and high taxation, organizing pamphlet distribution and eventually confronting colonial militias.
Stamp Act Congress (October 1765)
Delegates from 9 colonies met in New York to issue a Declaration of Rights and Grievances, marking a significant joint colonial response to British policies.
Key Concept #4: Incidents Leading to Revolution
Boston Massacre (1770)
The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired into a crowd in Boston, killing five individuals after being threatened and attacked by an unruly mob. The event was heavily publicized by the Sons of Liberty to incite anti-British sentiment among the colonists.
British Response to Colonial Actions
Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) (1774)
The Coercive Acts were punitive laws enacted by the British Parliament as a reaction to the Boston Tea Party, aimed at punishing Massachusetts. Key components included:
Boston Port Act: Closed Boston's port until payment for the destroyed tea was received.
Massachusetts Government Act: Revoked Massachusetts' charter, placing its government under direct British control.
Administration of Justice Act: Allowed the governor to move trials of royal officials to Britain if fair trials were deemed impossible in the colony.
Quartering Act: Required colonies to house British troops in homes or other buildings if barracks were unsuitable.