Computer Components and Operating Systems

Computer Components and Operating Systems

Input, Processing, Storage, and Output

• Computers perform four basic functions:
  • Input: Receiving information.
  • Storage: Storing information.
  • Processing: Processing information.
  • Output: Outputting information.
• These functions are handled by different components:
  • Input devices: Convert external data into binary.
  • Memory: Stores data.
  • CPU (Central Processing Unit): Performs calculations.
  • Output devices: Convert binary data into physical output.

Input Devices

• Convert input from the outside world into binary information.
• Examples:
  • Keyboard
  • Touchpad
  • Camera
  • Microphone
  • GPS
  • Sensors (car, thermostat, drone)

Data Flow Example: Keyboard Input

• Pressing a key (e.g., 'B') converts it to a number.
• The number is sent to the computer as binary (1s and 0s).
• The CPU calculates how to display the letter pixel by pixel.
• The CPU fetches instructions from memory on how to draw 'B'.
• The CPU executes instructions and stores the pixel data in memory.
• Pixel data is sent as binary to the screen.
• The screen converts binary signals into light and color to display the letter.
• Thousands of instructions are executed for each letter.

Output Devices

• Convert binary signals into physical actions.
• Examples:
  • Screen: Displays visual output.
  • Speaker: Plays sound.
  • 3D printer: Creates physical objects.
  • Robotic arm: Controls motion.
  • Motors: Controls movement in vehicles or machines.
  • Milling machine: Cutting tools.

Processing Power and Memory

• More complex tasks require more processing power and memory.
• Modern computers may have multiple CPUs and gigabytes of memory.
• Every action involves:
  • Inputting data.
  • Storing and processing data.
  • Outputting results.

CPU Architecture: 32-bit vs. 64-bit

• Modern OS are commonly 64-bit, while older systems may use 32-bit architectures.
• The architecture refers to the CPU's capabilities.
• 32-bit Processors
  • Can access up to 2^{32} values.
  • This is equivalent to just over 4 billion values.
  • Can access a maximum of 4 gigabytes of memory.
• 64-bit Processors
  • Can access up to 2^{64} values, a dramatically larger amount of data.
  • Can theoretically access 17 billion gigabytes of information.
    • 2^{64}. is equal to 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes which divided by 1024 seven times (to convert it to gigabytes) becomes 16 exabytes.
• Operating systems often have a maximum supported memory value.

Determining System Type in Windows

• Check the system type in the Control Panel under System settings.
• It will display whether the OS is 32-bit or 64-bit and the processor type (x64-based).

Driver Compatibility

• Hardware drivers must match the OS type.
  • Use 32-bit drivers for 32-bit OS.
  • Use 64-bit drivers for 64-bit OS.
• 32-bit software is sometimes abbreviated as x86, referring to the Intel 8086 line of processors.
• 64-bit processors are abbreviated as x64.

Application Compatibility

• A 32-bit OS cannot run 64-bit applications.
• A 64-bit OS can run both 64-bit and 32-bit applications.
• To determine if an application is 32-bit or 64-bit in Windows, check its installation location:
  • 32-bit apps are typically installed in "Program Files (x86)".
  • 64-bit apps are installed in "Program Files".

ARM Architecture

• ARM (Advanced RISC Machine) is an architecture designed by ARM Limited.
• Third parties use ARM specifications to create ARM-based CPUs.
• Known for efficiency and speed, using less power and creating less heat.
• Commonly used in mobile devices and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
• ARM capabilities are expanding, blurring the lines between traditional 64-bit and ARM-based systems.

CPU Internals: Cores and Caches

• A CPU contains multiple individual components.
• The processor core is where the main processing occurs.
• Modern CPUs often have multiple cores (dual-core, quad-core, multi-core) on a single physical package.
• Multiple cores may have dedicated or shared caches.
• Caches speed up data processing in and out of the CPU.
• CPUs often have integrated memory controllers and graphics processors.

CPU Monitoring and Hyper-Threading

• CPU monitoring tools (e.g., Windows Task Manager) can show processing activity.
• Hyper-threading (HTT) makes a single physical CPU core appear as multiple virtual cores.
• HTT increases throughput by 15-30%.
• Both the CPU and OS must support hyper-threading.

Virtualization

• CPUs often include hardware to virtualize additional operating systems.
• Allows running multiple OS instances (e.g., Windows, Linux) on a single machine.
• Virtualization is resource-intensive, so functionality is integrated into CPU hardware.
• Intel CPUs use Intel Virtualization Technology (VT).
• AMD CPUs use AMD Virtualization (AMD-V).
• Virtualization software may require enabling these features in the BIOS.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

• RAM is high-speed temporary storage used by applications and documents when they are loaded.
• This is distinct from SSD or hard drive storage.
• Only able to use apps and documents when their data is loaded into memory.

Memory Modules (DIMMs and SODIMMs)

• Modern computers use the same type of memory slots.
• Designed for fast data transfer between memory modules and the CPU.
• Motherboard documentation specifies the correct memory type.
• DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)
  • Connectors on each side of the module are different.
  • Transfers data in 64-bit widths.
• SODIMM (Small Outline Dual Inline Memory Module)
  • About half the width of a DIMM.
  • Used in laptops and mobile devices.

RAM Characteristics

• The black components on memory modules are RAM chips.
• DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
  • Requires constant refreshing to retain data.
  • Requires continuous power to maintain data.
• Random Access
  • Any data location can be accessed directly without fast-forwarding or rewinding.
• Synchronous
  • Data flow is regulated by a system clock.
  • Data is transferred in or out of the system during each clock cycle.

Memory Module Notches

• Notches on the bottom of the module prevent using the wrong memory type.
• Example: Prevents installing a DDR2 module in a DDR3 slot.

Data Rate: Single Data Rate (SDR) vs. Double Data Rate (DDR)

• SDR (Single Data Rate)
  • Transfers one bit of data per clock cycle.
• DDR (Double Data Rate)
  • Transfers twice the amount of data in a single clock cycle.

DDR Generations: DDR3, DDR4, DDR5

• DDR3
  • Improved over DDR2.
  • Doubled the data rates of DDR2.
  • Maximum of 16 GB of RAM per module.
  • Not backwards compatible with other DDR versions.
• DDR4
  • Increased speed over DDR3.
  • Maximum of 64 GB of RAM per module.
  • Not backwards compatible with other DDR versions.
• DDR5
  • Faster throughput than DDR4.
  • Maximum of 64GB Ram. can potentially reach 128 GB for UDIMM.
  • Not backwards compatible with other DDR versions.
  • Key/notch location has changed

Operating Systems: The Foundation of Computing

• An OS ties together hardware components: memory, storage, CPU, peripherals.
• It provides a standard platform for application developers.
• Provides a user interface (UI) for human interaction.

Common OS Functions

• File management: adding, removing, renaming, and changing files.
• Application execution: Managing memory and CPU resources.
• Input/Output (I/O): Managing data flow through printers, keyboards, storage devices, USB drives etc.
• Management and configuration tools.

Microsoft Windows

• One of the most popular operating systems.
• Versions: Windows 10, Windows 11, Windows Server.
• Advantages
  • Extensive industry support.
  • Wide application availability.
  • Customization tools.
• Disadvantages
  • Frequent malware and spyware attacks due to its popularity.
  • Requires hardware drivers compatible with the specific Windows version.

Linux

• A Unix-like operating system that is open source and free to use.
• Many distributions are available.
  • General-use desktop OS.
  • Specialized function-specific versions.
• Advantages
  • Free of charge; no licensing costs.
  • Runs on almost any hardware.
  • Extensive community support.
• Disadvantages
  • May lack hardware drivers, especially for specialized hardware.
  • Limited formal support options; relies on community support.

macOS

• The desktop operating system for Apple hardware.
• Advantages
  • User-friendly and easy to use.
  • Highly compatible with macOS applications.
  • Secure due to Apple's closed system.
• Disadvantages
  • Potential lack of device drivers for specific hardware.
  • Higher hardware costs compared to other platforms.

Chrome OS

• An operating system made by Google.
• Based on the Linux kernel and designed for low-end platforms.
• Relies heavily on the Chrome browser and web-based applications.
• Designed to run on systems with minimal hardware requirements.
• Many applications run in the cloud.

iPadOS

• A variant of iOS created specifically for the tablet environment.
• Features include a desktop-class browser with Safari.
• Supports Sidecar for using the iPad as a second monitor.
• Supports keyboard and mouse input.
• Supports multitasking for running multiple applications simultaneously.

iOS

• Apple's operating system for the iPhone platform.
• Based on Unix and designed exclusively for iPhones.
• Apps are developed using a Software Development Kit (SDK) on macOS.
• Apple thoroughly checks and approves apps before deployment to the App Store.

Android OS

• Google's open-source operating system based on Linux.
• Supported by many hardware manufacturers.
• Android apps are written in Windows, macOS, and Linux using the Android SDK.
• Apps can be downloaded from the Google Play Store and third-party sites like the Amazon App Store.

OS Updates and Compatibility

• Operating systems receive automatic updates, including bug fixes, security patches, and enhancements.
• Certain data files can be shared between operating systems e.g. word processing documents or video files.
• Applications must be built for the specific operating system.
• Web-based applications can be used across different operating systems via a browser.