Modules 1 & 2 Notes!

Module 1: What is Sociology?

• Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups.

The Sociological Imagination

• The sociological imagination——an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. (C.Wright Mills)

Sociology and the Social Sciences

• Science—the body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation.

• Natural Science—the study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change.

• Social science—the study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change.

Sociology and Common Sense

• Common sense – our experiences and conversations from what we read, from what we see on television, and so forth.

What is Sociological Theory?

• Theory—a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions or behavior.

• Theories can have explanatory and predictive power.

• Émile Durkheim Theory of Suicide:

• - Suicide is related to group life/suicide rates of a society reflected the extent to which people were or were not integrated into the group life of the society.

Module 2: The Development of Sociology

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)—coined the term sociology to apply to the science of human behavior.

• - believed that a theoretical science of society and the systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society.

Harriet Martineu (1802-1876)—wrote the first book on sociological methods.

• - examined religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in the young nation. Her book, Society in America, gave special attention to class distinctions and to such factors as gender and race.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)—early contributor to the discipline of sociology

• -drawing on Charles Darwin’s study, On the Origins of Species, Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change or evolve overtime. Similarly, he adapted Darwin‘s evolutionary view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is “natural“ that some people are rich while others are poor.

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)— was appointed one of the first professors of sociology in France.

• - Remembered for his insistence that behavior must be understood within a larger, social context, not just an individualistic terms.

• - He concluded from his study of the Arunta, an Australian tribe, that religion reinforces group solidarity like other forms of group behavior.

• - coined Anomie, which refers to the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective

Max Weber (vay-ber) 1864–1920.

Key Concepts Introduced by Weber:

a. Verstehen

• Definition: German for “understanding” or “insight.”

• Importance: Emphasizes understanding subjective meanings people attach to their actions.

• Distinction: Unlike objective measurements (e.g., weight, temperature), social behavior requires understanding emotions, beliefs, and thoughts.

• Example Application:

• Study of social rankings in a fraternity.

• Sociologist investigates factors like athleticism, grades, social skills, or seniority influencing hierarchy.

• Focus: How members perceive and explain their own and others’ behavior within the social structure.

b. Ideal Type

• Definition: A conceptual model or construct for evaluating specific cases.

• Purpose:

• Provides a standard for comparison, not an actual representation of any one case.

• “Ideal” does not imply positive judgment; it is a neutral tool for analysis.

• Example:

• Characteristics of bureaucracy as an ideal type.

• Helps measure how bureaucratic a real organization is.

3. Relationship with Other Theorists

• Weber vs. Durkheim:

• Never met or interacted, likely unaware of each other’s ideas.

• Weber vs. Marx:

• Weber’s emphasis on a value-free sociology contrasted with Marx’s advocacy for sociology as a tool for societal change.

• Marx influenced Weber’s thinking indirectly.

4. Influence and Legacy

• Contributions span sociology, family studies, religion, authority, and economics.

• Ideal type and verstehen remain foundational tools in sociological research and analysis.

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

• Challenges:

• Critical of existing institutions, making a conventional academic career impossible.

• Lived much of his life in exile and extreme poverty, losing children to malnutrition and disease.

2. Key Events and Collaborations

a. Partnership with Friedrich Engels

• Met in Paris after Marx fled Germany.

• Shared critique of capitalist societies.

b. The Communist Manifesto (1848)

• Co-authored with Engels.

• Key points:

• History is shaped by class struggles.

• The proletariat (working class with no resources but labor) should overthrow capitalist societies.

• Famous quote:

“The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!”

c. Exile and Life in England

• Returned to Germany briefly but was expelled again.

• Spent the rest of his life in England, writing in poverty and facing societal exclusion.

3. Core Concepts of Marx’s Sociology

a. Class Conflict

• Society is divided into:

1. Exploiters: Owners of the means of production.

2. Exploited: Workers.

• The factory symbolizes the central conflict in industrial societies.

b. Systematic Power Dynamics

• Economic, social, and political relationships maintain dominance of the owners over workers.

• Marx advocated for the overthrow of the class system to end exploitation.

4. Legacy and Influence

a. Political Impact

• Inspired communist revolutions in Russia, China, Cuba, Vietnam, and beyond.

b. Sociological Significance

• Emphasized group memberships and associations in shaping societal roles.

• Contemporary sociology builds on his ideas, examining how factors like gender, age, race, and economic class influence attitudes and behavior.

c. Pioneering Work

• Marx’s analysis of class and power dynamics remains foundational in sociology, influencing studies on inequality and systemic oppression.

W.E.B. DuBois (1868–1963)

Key Contributions to Sociology

a. Emphasis on Knowledge and Research

• Advocated using scientific principles to study social problems, particularly those affecting Black Americans.

• Encouraged separating opinion from fact through in-depth sociological research.

b. Studies of Urban Life

• Conducted groundbreaking studies on urban communities, analyzing both Black and white populations.

• Example: The Philadelphia Negro ([1899] 1995), a detailed sociological study of Black life in Philadelphia.

c. Religion in Society

• Like Durkheim and Weber, recognized religion’s importance.

• Focused on religion’s role at the community level, particularly the Black church’s impact on its members.

d. Advocacy for Political Rights

• Criticized theorists like Herbert Spencer for accepting the status quo.

• Believed full political rights for Black Americans were essential for social and economic progress.

3. Founding the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory

• Promoted innovative research on religion, crime, and race relations.

• Trained students in sociological research methods.

• Legacy: Extensive interviews from this research continue to enrich sociology.

4. Political Activism

a. NAACP (1909)

• Co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

• Worked with organizations challenging the established social order.

b. Challenges to the Status Quo

• DuBois’s ideas, which often questioned societal norms, faced resistance from both the government and academia.

5. Key Concept: Double Consciousness

• Coined in 1897.

• Definition: The division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities.

• Application: Describes the experience of being Black in a predominantly white America.

• Example: Despite achievements like the election of a Black president, millions of African Americans still face systemic inequalities.

6. Lasting Impact

• DuBois’s work established a foundation for understanding race, identity, and systemic injustice in sociology.

• His advocacy for justice and equality continues to influence sociological research and civil rights activism.

Evolution of Sociology

1. Foundational Figures in Sociology

• Sociology today builds on the work of early theorists such as Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Karl Marx, and W.E.B. DuBois.

• Contributions from sociologists worldwide, especially in the U.S., have advanced sociological theory and research.

2. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)

• Background:

• Born in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

• Trained in economics but later became a sociology professor at the University of Michigan.

• Contributions:

• Focused on smaller social units like families, gangs, and friendship networks.

• Viewed these groups as “seedbeds of society” that shape people’s:

• Ideals.

• Beliefs.

• Values.

• Social nature.

• His work deepened understanding of small social groups and their influence.

3. Jane Addams (1860–1935)

• Background:

• Member of the American Sociological Society.

• Cofounded Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago.

• Approach to Sociology:

• Combined:

• Intellectual inquiry.

• Social service work.

• Political activism.

• Goal: Assist the underprivileged and create a more egalitarian society.

• Key Achievements:

• Worked with Ida Wells-Barnett to prevent racial segregation in Chicago public schools.

• Helped establish:

• Juvenile court system.

• Women’s trade union.

4. Mid-20th Century Shift in Sociology

• Change in Focus:

• Move away from social reform.

• Increased emphasis on:

• Theorizing.

• Information gathering.

• Scientific methods of research.

• Prioritized value-free interpretation of data.

• Reaction:

• Dissatisfaction among some sociologists.

• Creation of the Society for the Study of Social Problems (1950):

• Focused on addressing social inequality and other societal issues.

5. Key Takeaways:

• Cooley: Focused on small, face-to-face groups as key influencers of society.

• Addams: Pioneered a blend of sociology, social service, and activism to support marginalized groups.

• Mid-20th Century Shift: Sociology became more academic and research-focused, but groups like the Society for the Study of Social Problems pushed for renewed focus on social reform.