Chapter 19: Reformations Notes (copy)
Chapter 19: Reformations
The Protestant Reformation
Definition:
The Protestant Reformation was a permanent split within the Catholic Church resulting in multiple competing denominations of Christian practice and belief.
Catholic Perspective on Protestantism:
The Catholic hierarchy viewed these new denominations as heresies, representing sinful breaks from orthodox beliefs.
Historical Context:
The Protestant Reformation, initially a protest against corruption within the Church, evolved into distinct branches of Christianity.
Notably, Martin Luther was a founding figure, utilizing humanistic education to support his arguments.
Catholic Reformation:
In reaction to Protestantism and partly a continuation of earlier reform movements, the Catholic Church introduced significant changes known as the Counter-Reformation.
Context of the Reformation
State of the Church in the Late 15th Century:
The Catholic Church was deeply integrated into early-modern European society with approximately 1 in 75 individuals connected to the Church as priests, monks, or laypersons.
The Church managed major life events, and salvation was deemed accessible only through its rituals.
Challenges to Church Authority:
Historical events like the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Western Schism weakened the Church’s authority.
Stronger secular states began appointing bishops and priests, diminishing papal influence.
Moral and Ethical Concerns:
Corruption and lax behavior among church leaders led to a decline in credibility.
Satirical literature condemned immoral clergy behavior, fostering public concern about Church corruption.
Monastic Institutions:
Monastic orders strived to imitate Christ but had become wealthy. Monasteries owned 20% of land, contrasting with vows of poverty.
Emphasis shifted towards individual spirituality and lay-led movements like Modern Devotion, advocating for direct personal salvation.
The Selling of Indulgences
Definition of Indulgences:
An indulgence was a Church-issued certificate promising to lessen time in purgatory for sins, likened to spiritual absolution.
Historical Practice:
Initially linked to good deeds supporting the Church, indulgences evolved into a lucrative means of revenue for the Church, particularly under Renaissance popes.
Public Criticism:
Indulgences became wildly commercial, often sold without consideration for buyers' spiritual state.
Martin Luther and Lutheranism
Background:
Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) faced personal difficulties leading to a profound spiritual identity crisis, which fueled his desire for monastic life.
He obtained a scholarly and humanistic education, eventually becoming a professor in Wittenberg.
Key Theological Battles:
Luther struggled with the concept of salvation through good works, concluding that only faith in God's grace could merit salvation.
He rejected the efficacy of indulgences, framing his arguments in his famous 95 Theses, posted in 1517 attacking their crass commercialization.
The 95 Theses:
Aimed to initiate debate, they critiqued indulgences for fostering greed and distrust among laity.
Luther's Radicalization
Debate and Consequences:
After being forced to defend his views, Luther radicalized his arguments, establishing that the pope was not necessary for salvation.
Diet of Worms (1521):
Luther was deemed an outlaw after refusing to recant his views, further substantiating the divide between him and the Church.
Spread of Protestantism
Early Adoption by Elites:
Lutheranism found early support among educated classes and church officials, offering them the chance to acknowledge their own moral failings without Church penalties.
Political Ramifications:
Charles V was limited in suppressing Protestantism due to geopolitical conflicts, as well as his unwillingness to confront influential princes supporting Lutheranism.
Calvinism
Jean Calvin:
Calvin, a French lawyer, established a distinct Protestant denomination emphasizing predestination—the belief that God determines who will be saved prior to birth.
Life and Society Under Calvinism:
Calvinist doctrine stressed moral living and discipline with a significant focus on scripture study, leading to the establishment of the Consistory to maintain moral conduct in Geneva.
The English Reformation
Henry VIII's Motivation:
Motivated by personal desire for a male heir, Henry VIII separated from the Catholic Church after his divorce petition was denied by the pope.
The Acts of Supremacy (1534) effectively established the Church of England, maintaining similar doctrine but removing papal authority.
The Effects of the Reformation
Permanent Divisions in Christianity:
Divisions solidified by the late 16th century into the Catholic Church (predominantly in southern Europe), Eastern Orthodox Church, and various Protestant denominations including Lutheranism and Calvinism.
Catholic Reformation:
Often viewed as a Counter-Reformation, this period also saw genuine reforms culminating in the establishment of seminaries and the rise of the Jesuits.
The Council of Trent
Purpose and Outcome:
Convened to address Protestant critiques and reinstate Catholic doctrine while establishing standards for priestly education and declining the permissibility of Bible translation into vernacular languages.
Jesuit Influence
Founding by Ignatius of Loyola:
The Society of Jesus emphasized education and missionary work, becoming a vital force in countering Protestantism.
Conclusion
Cultural Impact:
The Reformation generated lasting shifts in literacy and educational opportunities across Europe, significantly affecting Christian doctrine and practices.
Study Guide
I. Religions (know the beliefs & rituals & KEY TERMS of the religion)
A) Protestantism
Beliefs:
- They only followed the 2 sacraments Baptism and the Eucharist (Lord Supper)
- Protestants believed that each individual can interpret the bible in their own way
- Protestants only worship Mary as the mother of Christ and they think she needs
salvation like everyone
- Protestants only worship Mary as the divine mother of Jesus and nothing more
- A person could reach salvation through faith, not through good deeds (faith alone
can save a person)
- Bread and wine is a symbol of Christ
They consider all of their churches equal
They developed worship styles that are straightforward
The protestants opposed the church by pointing out errors in it and they did not stand in favor of the church because they consider all of their churches equal
Not all Protestants are Lutherans
B) Lutheranism
The beliefs/religion was created by Luther
Beliefs:
- He believed that a simple faith could lead to salvation
- He strongly believed in an inner faith in God
- As long as people believed God would save them, they could receive salvation by
God’s grace
- Bible is authority
- Beliefs are the same as Protestants
C) Calvinism
John Calvin was a French lawyer from the 16th century with a strong classical education background who founded Calvinism
Calvinism originated in Switzerland because French Calvinists (known as huguenots) were persecuted in France. Calvin went to Switzerland because there was already a Protestant movement started by a man named Zwingli, who was killed when fighting broke out between Protestants and Catholics.
Beliefs:
- They follow the book Institutes of the Christian Religion
- They stress the importance of leading/living a moral life
- Calvin believed that people are naturally flawed and corrupt, and full of sin
- He believes that God is omnipotent (all powerful) and omnipresent (everywhere all the time)
- The Church and state should be combined, called a theocracy
Key Terms:
- Predestination means that God has already determined who is going to heaven and
hell. He calls the people going to heaven the elect and the people going to hell reprobates.
You are supposed to live a moral life, as if you are already a member of the elect.
- The Blue Laws was the punishment for doing any of the rules Calvinists were not
allowed to do
Calvinists are not allowed to do the following:
- gamble
- wear bright colors
- show off their money
- participate in dance or theater (acting)
- drinking, and the amount of food eaten was regulated.
- The punishment for doing all of these things was death (these are called the blue laws)
Key Terms:
- Calvin made the city of Geneva a theocracy, which gave importance to living righteously. Due to this, Calvin’s theocracy overly controlled citizen’s conduct and its laws prohibited people from dancing, playing cards, wearing showy dresses, and speaking profane language. If people violated these laws they would be punished severely and face consequences.
Luther thinks that people can be saved on faith alone while Calvin says that people cannot have the power to decide, but God can decide
D) Anabaptist
The religion was founded in Augsburg, Germany in 1526 by Hans Denk
This was part of the more radical branch in the Protestant Reformation
Beliefs:
- Infants’ baptism was useless in Catholicism and true believers would be baptized when they were adults, which was a practice that originated from the Apostles.
- Denk’s belief was that rebaptized adult believers made up the true church;
- People have free will instead of predestination
- The secular government is evil and only encourages passive obedience
- The church community (people who have made a public commitment to faith) should be kept away from the state who believed that the church only existed to punish sinners
- The majority of Anabaptists were against war and swearing oaths
- They formed churches of committed disciples which denied entrance to some people
- Men and women were equal in the Church
- They are anti-slavery
They originated in North America in 1643 in New Amsterdam, but a greater Anabaptism took place in Germantown, Pennsylvania in 1683 where a permanent Mennonite community was established by settlers
Anabaptists couldn’t get baptized as a baby because they considered being baptized as an adult the way to publicly confess their sins and faith
E) Presbyterian
The religion was founded in Scotland by John Knox
Presbyterian churches were governed with a council of elders instead of bishops and ministers, which most churches had
Key Terms:
-Old lights are the traditional and conservative group
-New lights wanted to modernize the church
Presbyterian Church grew out of the Reformation
Derived its teachings from John Calvin by stressing the man’s total corruption (depravity) and salvation by God’s grace alone
The sect still exists today in Canada, the Caribbean, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Africa since it spreads almost everywhere
F) Anglican
The Anglican Church originated in England and was founded by Henry VIII and Elizabeth I
This Church is unique because it started for secular purposes since King Henry VIII wanted a divorce
Beliefs:
- Anglicans are flexible in the interpretation of communion
- They follow the book of Common Prayer
- They follow the seven sacraments, but stress the importance of the first two
- Their religious literature is written in vernacular language
- They have simple services
Key Terms:
- The Act of Supremacy states that the monarch is head of the Church, which means that the monarch is now head of church and state.
- Henry cuts England's ties to the Catholic Church after The Act of Supremacy is
established
Anglicans followed both Catholic and Protestant religious beliefs, but Lutherans only followed Protestant beliefs
G) Catholicism
They have 7 sacraments which are Baptism, Confirmation, Communion (Eucharist), Confession (reconciliation), Holy Orders, Marriage, and Last Rites (Anointing of the Sick)
Roman Catholics follow many beliefs and practices that are not stated in the Scriptures as well as authority is found in the bible
Beliefs:
- They believe in hierarchy based on authority as well as embrace Church
Hierarchy and symbolic actions in worship
- Catholics believe that Mary is the divine mother of Christ and the queen of
heaven
- They believe and worship the pope as the highest authority appointed by Jesus
after him
- The Roman Catholic church believed that good deeds, rather than faith could bring
you to heaven and the Pope and bishops could tell people what to believe in, not the
Bible
Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic church because he wanted to
divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon since she didn’t produce a male heir to the throne, but Pope Clement VIII refused to grant the divorce
II. Key People- (Where the person was from, importance in regards to religion, etc.)
A) Martin Luther
He planned to become a lawyer which was his father’s wish, but after getting stuck in a violent storm and surviving, this was God’s sign for him to become a monk and dedicate his life to the search of salvation
Luther began to question issues within the Church, because people were selling indulgences, he saw clergy members that were uneducated, and he saw corrupt priests taking money for themselves, and priests were not remaining selabit
His wife was Katerina von Bora
He translated the Bible into German
Key Terms:
- He 1517 he wrote The 95 Theses and which was a list of 95 reasons/complaints he
had with the Catholic Church
- It challenged Tetzel when Luther placed it on the church door in Wittenberg,
Germany
- The majority of these statements were about indulgences which caused the sale of
indulgences to decline; the news quickly spread all over Europe that a monk
challenged selling indulgences.
- Two things he argued in this was that hierarchy was corrupt and the selling of
indulgences
His two main beliefs regarding religion/God were :
- The Bible is the central source of religious teachings, not the Church
- A person could reach salvation through faith, not through good deeds, which
ultimately shaped Protestantism
Beliefs:
- A woman was equal to the man in marriage
When Luther was put on trial he refused to recant (take back what he said) about the Church so the Edict of Worms was put into effect which excommunicated him
Some of his “radical” beliefs later in life included calling the Pope the antichrist (the devil) and making advocates for Jews removed from Germany (anti-Semitism)
B) John Calvin
John Calvin was a French lawyer from the 16th century with a strong classical education background
Key Terms:
- Predestination means that God has already determined who is going to heaven and
hell. (people going to heaven are the elect and the people going to hell
reprobates)
- Blue Laws: no drinking, dancing, wearing vibrant colors, gambling, profane
language, participating in theater, showing off wealth, gluttony, etc. (see Calvinism)
Beliefs:
- Moral standards: devoutness, dislike of frivolity, self-discipline, attendance at
sermons for the purging of sins, and true and complete dedication to God’s wishes
(You are supposed to live a moral life, as if you are already a member of the elect)
-The religion Presbyterian was derived from his teachings
C) John Knox
He founded the religion Presbyterian in Scotland
He used John Calvin’s teachings as inspiration
Presbyterian Church grew out of the Reformation
He believed that the religion should govern with a council of elders instead of bishops and ministers, which most churches had
D) Charles V
He was in charge of Germany and many saw him as a threat to world domination
He attempted to stop Protestantism from spreading, but was busy fighting the
Ottoman Turks and the French for 10 years
In 1544 he sent armies against the Protestant princes in Germany, but ultimately reached a compromise with the princes by signing the Peace of Augsburg in 1555
He summoned Luther to the Imperial Diet which was a special meeting of the rulers of the leaders of the city at the Diet of Worms
He kept Lutheranism from spreading
He translated the Bible to German
Key Terms:
- The Peace of Augsburg stated that whoever ruled would determine the religion of
their state, and if the citizens didn’t like it they could move
E) King Henry VIII
He caused the break between England and the Roman Catholic church from 1529 to 1536
He founded the Anglican Church with Queen Elizabeth I
The Anglican Church is unique because it started for secular purposes since King Henry VIII wanted a divorce
He defended the church so well against Luther’s ideas that the pope gave him the title of the “Defender of Faith”
Order of his wives:
- 1.) Catherine of Aragon
- 2.) Ann Boleyn
- 3.) Jane Seymour
- 4.) Ann of Cleves
- 5.) Catherine Howard
- 6.) Catherine Parr
F) Queen Elizabeth I
She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and Ann Boleyn
She grew up in England
She passed the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity which established England as a Protestant Country
Her reign is referred to as the “Golden Age” of England because
She was never married and called the virgin queen
She was an able politician who was smart, well educated, and chose good advisors
England set its way to become a great naval power when its navy defeated the powerful Spanish Armada
She gave a famous speech which was recorded in a letter by Leonol Sharp
G) Ann Boleyn
She was King Henry VIII’s 2nd wife
Her and Henry had one daughter named Elizabeth I
She was Protestant
She was in the court of Henry’s sister Mary who became the queen of france - Henry split from the Roman Catholic Church to be permitted to marry her
Death: she was executed on accounts of adultery
H) Jane Seymour
She was King Henry VIII’s 3rd wife
Her and Henry had one son, which was Henry’s only son named Edward
She was King Henry VIII’s one true love
I) Zwingli
He started the Protestant movement in Switzerland, but was killed when fighting broke out between Protestants and Catholics
He sets it up for Calvin by making him go to Switzerland
He was the leading forces of religious reform in Switzerland when he hear about the “95 Theses”
He agreed with Luther on the doctrine, but disagreed with the form of worship in the use of images
J) Ignatius of Loyola
Spanish soldier who told Pope Paul III to start Jesuits
He founded the Jesuits
K) Jesuits
They were well educated and a highly disciplined group of clergy members of the Catholic religion
They were the most disciplined and effective people at peacefully spreading Catholicism
They believed salvation could be achieved through self-discipline and large efforts to perform good deeds
They slowed the growth of Protestantism in places such as Poland, Germany, and France
Traveled around the world to spread the word of Catholicism and convince people to convert
Learned native languages and compared Catholicism with native religions wherever they traveled (contributed to their peaceful approach to the spread of Catholicism)
Contributed heavily to Europe’s educational movement through schools, shaped the way young people learned (many colleges are from them)
Took a nonviolent approach against Protestant heretics, believing one should not be punished if they are able to convert
L) Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III reigned from 1534-1549 and was known for his policy of bringing back a more spiritual outlook in the Catholic Church
His goal was to reform the Catholic Church and stop the spread of Protestantism
He also appointed dedicated and educated men as bishops and cardinals who he required bishops to work and live in their home dioceses (a district under the control of a pastor)
He moved the medieval Inquisition from Rome to Spain, which used many of its cruel punishments from governments
He summoned Council of church leaders to the city of Trent (Council of Trent)
The Inquisition thought its sole purpose was not to punish Protestants, but rather to keep Catholics within the church
M) Pope Paul IV
In 1557 Pope Paul IV created the “Index of Prohibited Books,” which prevented Catholics from reading certain books
After the method of printing books was invented, it was easier to prohibit what people could read rather than burning books
The Catholic church maintained the Index into 1966 until the Second Vatican Council abandoned it
N) King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella
They issued a papal bull which started the Spanish Inquisition
They wanted to remove Muslims and Jews
They are associated with the Edict of Expulsion
O) Catherine of Aragon
She was King Henry VIII’s 1st wife
Her and Henry had one daughter named Mary I
She was Catholic
She was originally married to Henry’s brother who died - the two married politically
She was very smart and was said by Erasmus to have been smarter than Henry himself
Death: she died from a tumor on her heart at the age of 51 and Henry spent the bare minimum on her funeral
P) Bosch (artist)
Reformation artist
His artwork= “7 deadly sins”
- 1.) Lust
- 2.) Greed
- 3.) Envy (jealousy)
- 4.) Gluttony (Hate)
- 5.) Wrath (Anger)
- 6.) Pride (too good for something)
- 7.) Sloth (Laziness)
Q) Hans Denk
He founded the Anabaptists in Augsburg, Germany in 1526, which was part of the more radical branch in the Protestant Reformation
He taught that baptism of infants was a useless part of Catholicism because only true believers would be baptized as adults
He had a strong belief in free will
R) Torquemada
Torquemada was significant to the Inquisition because under his influence monarchs created the Tribunal of Castile, which was used to investigate heresy against Conversos
He had an overzealous desire to kill and torture the Jews of Spain
He was the Grand Inquisitor of the Inquisition
He helped institute the Edict of Expulsion, which stated that all Jews must convert or leave Spain, and if they remained in Spain they would be imprisoned or killed
S) Johann Tetzel
He was an enthusiastic monk who was instructed by the pope to raise funds in northern Germany, which he did by using a technique that was accepted in the church, asking people to buy indulgences
His job was to force people to buy indulgences and he was very successful at it
T) Pope Leo X
He used the sale of indulgences to fund the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome (tasked Tetzel to lead this sale)
He challenged Martin Luther by declaring him a heretic
He excommunicated Luther
To put this excommunication into effect, Pope Leo X called on the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
He put Luther on trial with the Diet of Worms
U) Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)
He issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 which was a decree (official order) issued that gave the Huguenots freedom of worship and certain political rights
III. Acts/Events/Large Topics (know what the documents and events were in regard to and any people you would associate with them)
A) Council of Trent (know each council and what they decided)
It was created by Pope Paul III when he knew that that a counterattack against Protestantism wouldn’t be possible unless Catholic doctrines (beliefs) were properly defined
Since church authorities disagreed about complicated teachings, Pope Paul III gathered a council of church leaders (high up Catholic church officials) in the Italian city of Trent
The Council of Trent met in three sessions from 1545 to 1563 and defined official church doctrines while using the same precision Calvin did to define his faith
The goal was to stop the Spread of Protestantism and the council included high up church members
Six decisions they made:
- They confirm/keep their own seven sacraments
- The sale of indulgences were banned
- Jesuits were started
- They agree on clerical discipline by tightening the punishments for the clergy
- They stick with Latin as the Bible’s language
- They are keeping with original sin
B) Act of Supremacy
The monarch is head of the Church which means that the monarch is head of church and state
Henry cuts ties to the Catholic Church
It was passed by Elizabeth I
It cut English ties to the Church and started the English Reformation
It removed the Pope from the head of the English church and he was replaced by Henry VIII
C) Spanish Inquisition
The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic institution that was created to fight against heresy and other forms of irregular religious practices and beliefs as well as to create religious unity
The Spanish Inquisition was based around cruelty and gave the inquisition its worst reputation
Spanish monarchs thought that the Catholic faith in Spain was in danger since there were false Jewish and Islam (conversos) converts who hadn’t converted to Christianity, and were still practicing their own religion
The inquisition was focused around the goal of achieving political and religious unity which Catholic rulers enforced through harsh punishments
The monarchs and church worked together to combat heresy
The secular government was involved which made is extremely intense
The grand inquisitor was in charge
If someone was found guilty they would be tortured, have show trials, be put in prison, and even killed
D) Peace of Augsburg (events leading to it/decisions made)
The Peace of Augsburg stated that
- each German ruler would determine the religion of their state, and if the citizens didn’t like it they could move (almost all of the princes accepted Luther’s faith)
Charles V attempted to stop the spread of Protestantism, but was too busy fighting the Ottoman Turks and French
He sent armies against Protestant princes in Germany
The emperor won most of his battles, but couldn’t defeat him or the Church in the end
He reached a compromise by signing the Peace of Augsburg
E) Differences between Protestant and Catholics
F) Problems with the Church
Selling indulgences
Not staying selibent
Clergy members being uneducated
The church was corrupt
Acting immorally
G) Women in Protestantism
Males are superior to females
There was a tension in Protestantism over the secular vs religious areas and women
Conservatives based their claims on the ““holy ghost doth manifestly,” (John Knox) and religion, including the Bible which directed couples in their roles
Radicals based their claims off of the equality of men and women where everyone was required to take the “Royal Garment of the Royal Priesthood”
Women needed to do household tasks and less in work force
Women took part in the Reformation
The relationship between the “humble petition” to parliament and the Protestant ideas were that the parliament’s views were from the perspective of a conservative. They supported women’s patronization, but female petitions had a radical viewpoint
Protestant leaders and ordinary Protestants might work out a compromise between conservative and radical views about women by creating a viewpoint that is a balance between the two contrasting beliefs, such as something similar to the Peace of Augsburg
H) Sacraments
1.) Baptism- water is sprinkled on a person or they are dunked in it, allowing them to enter the Church community and cleanses you from original sin (Adam and Eve)
2.) Confirmation- It is a sacrament of initiation (the other two are Baptism and the Eucharist) and usually occurs during a mass that is given by the bishop; there are four parts to the Confirmation and it is important because the bishop anoints the believer’s forehead with holy oil called chrism.
3.) Communion (Eucharist)- This sacrament is when Christians remember The Last Supper and it involves spiritually feeding people the blood and body of Christ.
Transubstantiation (the bread and wine is the actual blood and body of Christ)
4.) Confession (reconciliation)- A priest helps Catholic Christians confess by forcing them to say sorry and promise to change in this sacrament. To keep their relationship with God, Catholics believe that they must attain forgiveness, making this sacrament very important.
5.) Holy Orders- Through this sacrament men are ordained as priests through the three stages of being ordained a deacon, being ordained a priest, and being ordained a bishop.
6.) Marriage- This sacrament is a public sign, which symbolizes that an individual is committing themselves to another person where God is present at the ceremony of the marriage.
7.) Last Rites (Ann. of the Sick)- This is the Catholic Church’s final sacrament and is given by a priest to those who have a serious illness or are going to die shortly; it’s practiced because Jesus cared for the sick and instructed his followers to do the same.
I) Diet of Worms/Edict of Worms
Diet of Worms= trial Luther was put on after he wrote the 95 Theses
Edict of Worms= document that says Luther is a heretic and is excommunicated
Charles V summoned Luther to the Imperial Diet (special meeting of rules of the empire at City of Worms)
He did this to put excommunicated into effect
The emperor commanded Luther to renounce his ideas and when Luther refused to recant the Diet of Worms banished him from the empire while also prohibiting printings of his work
Luther was an outlaw
J) Edict of Nantes
The Edict of Nantes was issuedin 1598 by King Henry IV and was a decree (official order) issued that gave the Huguenots freedom of worship and certain political right