Military History study guide for terms

1. Sioux

• Definition: A Native American group in the northern Great Plains who resisted U.S. westward expansion during the 19th century.
  
  

• Significance 1: Played a major role in the Plains Wars, notably resisting U.S. military forces at the Battle of Little Bighorn.
  
  

• Significance 2: Their resistance highlighted the failures of U.S. Indian policies and the brutal suppression of Native cultures.
  
  

2. Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)

• Definition: A major battle where Sioux and Cheyenne forces defeated General Custer’s 7th Cavalry.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated Native American military capability and temporarily delayed U.S. dominance in the West.
  
  

• Significance 2: Fueled American calls for harsher military campaigns against Native tribes, accelerating the Reservation System.
  
  

3. Wounded Knee (1890)

• Definition: A massacre where U.S. troops killed over 200 Lakota Sioux, marking the end of armed Native resistance.
  
  

• Significance 1: Symbolized the final suppression of Native American military resistance.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted U.S. military's role in enforcing cultural assimilation and westward expansion.
  
  

4. Comanche

• Definition: A dominant Native American tribe in the Southern Plains known for their cavalry and resistance to U.S. control.
  
  

• Significance 1: Their resistance delayed U.S. control of Texas and the Southern Plains.
  
  

• Significance 2: Their eventual defeat allowed for unhindered American expansion and settlement in the West.
  
  

5. Apache Wars (1849–1886)

• Definition: A series of conflicts between the U.S. Army and Apache tribes in the Southwest.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked one of the longest periods of Native American resistance against U.S. forces.
  
  

• Significance 2: Their defeat led to complete U.S. military control over the American Southwest.
  
  

6. Cochise

• Definition: A prominent Apache leader who led resistance against the U.S. in Arizona.
  
  

• Significance 1: Successfully resisted U.S. forces for over a decade, showcasing Native resilience.
  
  

• Significance 2: His eventual surrender marked the decline of Apache military resistance.
  
  

7. Geronimo

• Definition: An Apache warrior who continued guerrilla warfare against U.S. and Mexican forces until his capture in 1886.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became a symbol of Native resistance and guerrilla warfare tactics.
  
  

• Significance 2: His capture effectively ended large-scale Native American armed resistance.
  
  

8. Reservation System

• Definition: U.S. policy that forced Native Americans onto government-controlled lands to limit their movements and culture.
  
  

• Significance 1: Enabled U.S. military control over Native populations and lands.
  
  

• Significance 2: Facilitated westward expansion by removing Native people from valuable land.
  
  

9. Buffalo Soldiers

• Definition: African American regiments in the U.S. Army who served primarily in the western frontier after the Civil War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Played a key role in U.S. military campaigns during the Indian Wars.
  
  

• Significance 2: Their service challenged racial stereotypes, laying groundwork for later African American military integration.
  
  

10. “Remember the Maine”

• Definition: A slogan used after the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor (1898), used to promote war against Spain.
  
  

• Significance 1: Sparked U.S. entry into the Spanish-American War, initiating American imperialism abroad.
  
  

• Significance 2: Demonstrated the growing power of sensationalist media (“yellow journalism”) to influence military policy.

11. Cuba

• Definition: A focal point of U.S. foreign policy during the Spanish-American War and early 20th century.
  
  

• Significance 1: The U.S. military intervention in Cuba marked the beginning of American imperialism.
  
  

• Significance 2: The establishment of the Platt Amendment turned Cuba into a U.S. protectorate, demonstrating American control in the Caribbean.
  
  

12. Teller Amendment (1898)

• Definition: A congressional resolution declaring that the U.S. would not permanently annex Cuba after the Spanish-American War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Attempted to present the war as a mission of liberation rather than imperial conquest.
  
  

• Significance 2: Its ideals were undermined by the later Platt Amendment, showing the contradictions in U.S. foreign policy.
  
  

13. San Juan Hill

• Definition: A key battle of the Spanish-American War, famously involving Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became a symbol of American military heroism and validated the U.S.’s emerging role as a global power.
  
  

• Significance 2: Contributed to Roosevelt’s rise in political power and increased public enthusiasm for overseas military interventions.
  
  

14. Platt Amendment (1901)

• Definition: Legislation that allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs and established Guantanamo Bay Naval Base.
  
  

• Significance 1: Solidified U.S. military and political dominance in the Caribbean.
  
  

• Significance 2: Set a precedent for future U.S. interventions in Latin America under the Roosevelt Corollary.
  
  

15. Emilio Aguinaldo

• Definition: Leader of the Filipino independence movement against Spain and later against U.S. colonial rule.
  
  

• Significance 1: His resistance exposed the hypocrisy of American claims to spread freedom and democracy.
  
  

• Significance 2: The brutal U.S. suppression of his rebellion exemplified the harsh realities of American imperialism.
  
  

16. Philippine Civic Programs

• Definition: U.S.-led efforts to modernize and Americanize the Philippines through education and infrastructure.
  
  

• Significance 1: Used as a justification for U.S. colonial rule, promoting the idea of a “civilizing mission.”
  
  

• Significance 2: Set a model for future American military occupations involving nation-building efforts.
  
  

17. Anti-Imperialist League (1898)

• Definition: An organization opposed to U.S. annexation of the Philippines and imperialist expansion.
  
  

• Significance 1: Represented the first major organized resistance to U.S. global military involvement.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced debates over America’s role in the world, helping to foster early 20th-century isolationism.
  
  

18. Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)

• Definition: The treaty that ended the Russo-Japanese War, brokered by Theodore Roosevelt.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked the U.S.’s emergence as a key diplomatic and military power in global affairs.
  
  

• Significance 2: Earned Roosevelt the Nobel Peace Prize, reinforcing the U.S.’s role as a global mediator.
  
  

19. Great White Fleet (1907-1909)

• Definition: A U.S. naval fleet sent around the world to demonstrate American sea power under Theodore Roosevelt.
  
  

• Significance 1: Displayed America’s rising military might and naval capabilities.
  
  

• Significance 2: Served as a strategic warning to potential rivals like Japan, enhancing U.S. deterrence.
  
  

20. Roosevelt Corollary (1904)

• Definition: An addition to the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. intervention rights in Latin America to maintain stability.
  
  

• Significance 1: Justified U.S. military interventions throughout the Western Hemisphere, reinforcing its role as a regional police power.
  
  

• Significance 2: Laid the groundwork for future interventions in places like Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.
  
  

21. Entangling Alliances

• Definition: A term used by George Washington in his Farewell Address to warn against permanent foreign alliances.
  
  

• Significance 1: This idea influenced early U.S. isolationist policies, especially before World Wars I and II.
  
  

• Significance 2: Ironically, the system of entangling alliances in Europe directly contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
  
  

22. “Make the World Safe for Democracy”

• Definition: Slogan used by President Wilson to justify U.S. entry into World War I.
  
  

• Significance 1: Framed U.S. military involvement as a moral obligation, not just a strategic necessity.
  
  

• Significance 2: Established a tradition of using democratic ideals to justify military interventions abroad.
  
  

23. Pancho Villa

• Definition: Mexican revolutionary leader who led raids into the U.S., prompting a military expedition led by General Pershing.
  
  

• Significance 1: His actions led to one of the last U.S. cavalry expeditions and demonstrated the U.S.’s willingness to intervene militarily in Latin America.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the challenges of conducting military operations against guerrilla forces.
  
  

24. National Defense & Naval Acts (1916)

• Definition: Legislation passed to expand the U.S. Army and Navy in preparation for possible involvement in World War I.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked the first significant peacetime military buildup in U.S. history.
  
  

• Significance 2: Created the foundation for modernizing the U.S. military ahead of its entry into World War I.
  
  

25. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

• Definition: German naval policy of attacking all ships, including civilian and neutral vessels, during WWI.
  
  

• Significance 1: Directly led to U.S. entry into World War I after the sinking of ships like the Lusitania.
  
  

• Significance 2: Changed naval warfare strategy by emphasizing submarine attacks as a primary offensive tool.
  
  

26. Trench Warfare

• Definition: A type of warfare characterized by long, fortified trenches used during World War I.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to massive casualties and stalemates, forcing military leaders to rethink offensive strategies.
  
  

• Significance 2: Encouraged the development of new technologies like tanks and chemical weapons to break deadlocks.
  
  

27. St. Mihiel Offensive (1918)

• Definition: The first major U.S.-led offensive of World War I under General Pershing.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated the growing effectiveness and independence of U.S. forces in Europe.
  
  

• Significance 2: Contributed to the final Allied offensives that ended World War I.
  
  

28. Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918)

• Definition: President Wilson’s plan for post-World War I peace, promoting self-determination and the League of Nations.
  
  

• Significance 1: Influenced the creation of the League of Nations, though the U.S. ultimately refused to join.
  
  

• Significance 2: Established idealistic U.S. foreign policy goals centered on democracy and open diplomacy.
  
  

29. Treaty of Versailles (1919)

• Definition: The peace treaty that ended World War I, imposing harsh penalties on Germany.
  
  

• Significance 1: Directly contributed to political instability in Germany and the rise of Adolf Hitler.
  
  

• Significance 2: U.S. refusal to ratify the treaty reflected isolationist sentiments and a rejection of the League of Nations.
  
  

30. W.E.B. DuBois

• Definition: African American intellectual and civil rights leader who encouraged Black participation in World War I to gain full citizenship rights.
  
  

• Significance 1: Highlighted the role of African American soldiers in demanding civil rights after military service.
  
  

• Significance 2: His activism linked military service to the larger civil rights struggle, influencing post-war social movements.

31. Espionage Act (1917)

• Definition: A U.S. law that made it illegal to interfere with military operations or support U.S. enemies during wartime.
  
  

• Significance 1: Used to suppress anti-war dissent during WWI, limiting civil liberties.
  
  

• Significance 2: Set legal precedents for future wartime suppression of speech, including during WWII and the Cold War.
  
  

32. The (First) Red Scare (1919–1920)

• Definition: A period of intense fear of communism and political radicalism in the U.S. after WWI.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to increased government surveillance and the Palmer Raids, targeting suspected radicals.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced future anti-communist policies, foreshadowing the McCarthy Era.
  
  

33. Polar Bear Expedition (1918–1919)

• Definition: A U.S. military intervention in northern Russia during the Russian Civil War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked one of the first U.S. attempts to contain communism abroad.
  
  

• Significance 2: Created lasting distrust between the Soviet Union and the United States.
  
  

34. Billy Mitchell

• Definition: U.S. Army officer and aviation pioneer who advocated for air power dominance.
  
  

• Significance 1: His ideas led to the development of an independent U.S. Air Force.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced strategic bombing campaigns during WWII.
  
  

35. Isolationism

• Definition: U.S. foreign policy approach avoiding involvement in foreign conflicts, especially after WWI.
  
  

• Significance 1: Prevented the U.S. from joining the League of Nations, weakening collective security.
  
  

• Significance 2: Delayed U.S. entry into WWII, affecting early Allied strategies.
  
  

36. Appeasement

• Definition: Policy of conceding to aggressive demands (notably Hitler’s Germany) to avoid conflict.
  
  

• Significance 1: Failed to prevent WWII, emboldening Axis powers.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to a postwar U.S. policy of active containment rather than appeasement.
  
  

37. “Arsenal for Democracy”

• Definition: FDR’s promise to supply Allied nations with weapons before U.S. entry into WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Boosted Allied war efforts while keeping the U.S. officially neutral.
  
  

• Significance 2: Accelerated U.S. industrial mobilization and military preparedness.
  
  

38. Battle of the Atlantic

• Definition: Prolonged naval conflict between Allied and German forces to control Atlantic shipping lanes.
  
  

• Significance 1: U.S. technological advancements (convoys, sonar) helped secure supply lines to Europe.
  
  

• Significance 2: Vital for ensuring the success of the D-Day invasion.
  
  

39. Kasserine Pass (1943)

• Definition: The first major U.S. defeat in North Africa during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Exposed weaknesses in U.S. leadership and training early in the war.
  
  

• Significance 2: Prompted reorganization of U.S. forces under General Patton, improving later performance.
  
  

40. Strategic Bombing

• Definition: A military strategy that targeted enemy industrial and civilian infrastructure to weaken morale and war production.
  
  

• Significance 1: Played a central role in Allied victory in both Europe and the Pacific.
  
  

• Significance 2: Raised ethical debates over civilian casualties, influencing postwar military doctrine.
  
  

41. Yalta Conference (1945)

• Definition: A meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to plan postwar Europe.
  
  

• Significance 1: Set the groundwork for the division of Germany and the onset of the Cold War.
  
  

• Significance 2: Created the foundation for the United Nations.
  
  

42. D-Day (June 6, 1944)

• Definition: The Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France at Normandy during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked the turning point in the European theater leading to Germany’s defeat.
  
  

• Significance 2: Showcased the success of Allied joint command and amphibious assault tactics.
  
  

43. Potsdam Conference (1945)

• Definition: Final WWII meeting of the Allied leaders, addressing postwar plans for Germany and Japan.
  
  

• Significance 1: Issued the Potsdam Declaration demanding Japan’s unconditional surrender.
  
  

• Significance 2: Heightened tensions with the Soviet Union, deepening the Cold War divide.
  
  

44. Joseph Stalin

• Definition: Leader of the Soviet Union during WWII and the early Cold War.
  
  

• Significance 1: His aggressive postwar policies in Eastern Europe contributed to the Cold War.
  
  

• Significance 2: A key figure in the Allied war effort but later seen as the primary rival to U.S. global influence.
  
  

45. Greater East-Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

• Definition: Japan’s imperialist policy during WWII, claiming to free Asia from Western colonialism.
  
  

• Significance 1: Justified Japanese military expansion across Southeast Asia.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to brutal occupations and war crimes, particularly in China and the Philippines.
  
  

46. Lend-Lease (1941)

• Definition: U.S. program to provide military aid to Allied nations before formally entering WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Enabled the Allies to continue fighting before U.S. direct involvement.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked the end of strict neutrality and the beginning of active U.S. support for Allied victory.
  
  

47. The Flying Tigers

• Definition: American volunteer pilots who fought for China against Japan before U.S. entry into WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated early U.S. opposition to Japanese expansion in Asia.
  
  

• Significance 2: Provided critical air support to Chinese forces and boosted American morale.
  
  

48. Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)

• Definition: Japanese surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led directly to U.S. entry into World War II.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked a major failure in U.S. military intelligence and defense readiness.
  
  

49. Doolittle Raid (1942)

• Definition: A surprise U.S. air raid on Tokyo, demonstrating Japan’s vulnerability to attack.
  
  

• Significance 1: Boosted American morale after Pearl Harbor.
  
  

• Significance 2: Forced Japan to divert resources to homeland defense.
  
  

50. Midway Battle (1942)

• Definition: A decisive naval battle where U.S. forces sank four Japanese aircraft carriers.
  
  

• Significance 1: Turned the tide of the war in the Pacific in favor of the U.S.
  
  

• Significance 2: Demonstrated the strategic value of aircraft carriers over battleships.
  
  

51. Kamikazes

• Definition: Japanese suicide pilots who crashed their planes into U.S. ships during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Highlighted Japan’s desperate military strategy and cultural emphasis on honor.
  
  

• Significance 2: Caused significant U.S. naval losses, influencing the decision to accelerate the war’s end.
  
  

52. Iwo Jima & Okinawa (1945)

• Definition: Two major battles in the Pacific Campaign that brought U.S. forces closer to Japan.
  
  

• Significance 1: Showed the extreme resistance of Japanese forces, leading to high American casualties.
  
  

• Significance 2: Directly influenced the decision to use atomic bombs to avoid a costly invasion of Japan.
  
  

53. Hiroshima & Nagasaki (Aug. 1945)

• Definition: Japanese cities destroyed by U.S. atomic bombs, leading to Japan’s surrender.
  
  

• Significance 1: Ended World War II without a land invasion of Japan.
  
  

• Significance 2: Began the nuclear age, profoundly influencing Cold War military strategies.
  
  

54. The Great Depression (1929–late 1930s)

• Definition: A severe global economic downturn that deeply affected the U.S. and contributed to international instability.
  
  

• Significance 1: Undermined faith in democratic governments, contributing to the rise of fascist regimes.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to major U.S. military spending cuts, limiting readiness before WWII.
  
  

55. U.S. Propaganda (WWII)

• Definition: Government-sponsored campaigns to promote war bonds, enlistment, and support for the war effort.
  
  

• Significance 1: Boosted public morale and helped finance the war.
  
  

• Significance 2: Reinforced social changes, including the inclusion of women and minorities in the war effort.
  
  

56. “Curbing” Rights WWII

• Definition: Refers to government actions limiting civil liberties during WWII, especially targeting dissent and minority groups.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to the internment of Japanese Americans, a significant violation of constitutional rights.
  
  

• Significance 2: Established precedents for wartime suppression of civil liberties, later influencing Cold War policies.
  
  

57. Internment

• Definition: The forced relocation and incarceration of Japanese Americans during WWII under Executive Order 9066.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated how racial prejudice influenced U.S. domestic policy during wartime.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to Supreme Court cases like Korematsu v. United States, which upheld internment policies.
  
  

58. Nisei Battalion

• Definition: A highly decorated Japanese American combat unit (442nd Regimental Combat Team) during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Proved the loyalty and bravery of Japanese Americans despite widespread discrimination.
  
  

• Significance 2: Their sacrifices played a role in postwar civil rights advancements for Asian Americans.
  
  

59. Tuskegee Airmen

• Definition: The first African American military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Successfully challenged racist assumptions about Black combat effectiveness.
  
  

• Significance 2: Helped pave the way for the desegregation of the U.S. military through Executive Order 9981.
  
  

60. Women Auxiliaries

• Definition: Women’s units like the Women’s Army Corps (WAC) and WAVES that supported the military during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Allowed women to serve in non-combat roles, freeing men for frontline duties.
  
  

• Significance 2: Advanced the role of women in the workforce and the military, laying groundwork for future integration.
  
  

61. Navajo Code Talkers

• Definition: Native American Marines who used the Navajo language to create an unbreakable code during WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Played a crucial role in secure battlefield communications in the Pacific Theater.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the contributions of Native Americans to U.S. military success despite long-standing discrimination.
  
  

62. Anti-Semitism

• Definition: Hostility toward or discrimination against Jewish people; prevalent globally during the 1930s and 1940s.
  
  

• Significance 1: Contributed to the U.S.’s slow response to the Holocaust and reluctance to accept Jewish refugees.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to postwar efforts to combat racism and promote human rights through institutions like the United Nations.
  
  

63. United Nations (1945)

• Definition: An international organization established after WWII to promote global peace and security.
  
  

• Significance 1: Replaced the failed League of Nations, with the U.S. as a leading member.
  
  

• Significance 2: Played a central role in international peacekeeping efforts and humanitarian missions during the Cold War.
  
  

64. Containment

• Definition: U.S. Cold War policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism worldwide.
  
  

• Significance 1: Guided U.S. involvement in Korea, Vietnam, and other global conflicts.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced key foreign policies like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.
  
  

65. Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)

• Definition: U.S.-led operation to supply West Berlin with food and fuel during a Soviet blockade.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated U.S. commitment to defending democracy in Europe.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked one of the first major confrontations of the Cold War, increasing tensions with the Soviet Union.
  
  

66. Marshall Plan (1948)

• Definition: U.S. program providing economic aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Prevented the spread of communism by stabilizing European economies.
  
  

• Significance 2: Strengthened U.S. political and economic influence in Europe during the early Cold War.
  
  

67. NATO (1949)

• Definition: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations.
  
  

• Significance 1: Formed to counter Soviet expansion and provide collective security against communist aggression.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked the institutionalization of U.S. military leadership in the Western world.
  
  

68. 38th Parallel

• Definition: The dividing line between North and South Korea established after WWII.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became the focal point of the Korean War, symbolizing Cold War divisions.
  
  

• Significance 2: Remains a critical geopolitical flashpoint to this day.
  
  

69. NSC-68 (1950)

• Definition: A key National Security Council document that called for massive U.S. military buildup to counter the Soviet threat.
  
  

• Significance 1: Shifted U.S. policy toward a more aggressive Cold War posture.
  
  

• Significance 2: Justified significant increases in defense spending, shaping U.S. military readiness for decades.
  
  

70. Chosin Reservoir (1950)

• Definition: A brutal battle during the Korean War where U.S. Marines fought their way out of a Chinese encirclement.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated American resilience in extreme conditions, boosting morale.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the challenges of Chinese intervention in the Korean conflict.
  
  

71. Pusan Perimeter (1950)

• Definition: The last defensive line held by U.N. forces in South Korea during the Korean War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Prevented the complete takeover of South Korea by communist forces.
  
  

• Significance 2: Allowed time for a successful U.N. counterattack, including the Inchon landing.
  
  

72. Inchon (1950)

• Definition: A successful amphibious landing by U.N. forces led by General MacArthur during the Korean War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Turned the tide of the war in favor of U.N. forces.
  
  

• Significance 2: Showcased the importance of amphibious operations in modern warfare.
  
  

73. MiG Alley

• Definition: An area in North Korea near the Chinese border where intense air battles occurred between U.S. and Soviet-piloted MiG-15s.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked the first large-scale jet fighter combat in history.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the escalating air power competition during the Cold War.
  
  

74. MacArthur

• Definition: U.S. General and key figure in the Pacific Theater during WWII and the Korean War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led successful U.S. operations in the Pacific and postwar reconstruction of Japan.
  
  

• Significance 2: His dismissal during the Korean War illustrated civilian control over the military.
  
  

75. National Security Act (1947)

• Definition: Legislation that reorganized U.S. military and intelligence agencies, creating the Department of Defense and the CIA.
  
  

• Significance 1: Strengthened U.S. military coordination during the Cold War.
  
  

• Significance 2: Established the framework for modern national security policy.

76. Women’s Armed Services Integration Act (1948)

• Definition: Law allowing women to serve as permanent, regular members of the U.S. armed forces.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked a major step toward gender equality in the military.
  
  

• Significance 2: Set the stage for expanded roles for women in future conflicts like Vietnam and the Gulf War.
  
  

77. Executive Order 9981 (1948)

• Definition: Issued by President Truman, it desegregated the U.S. armed forces.
  
  

• Significance 1: Ended official racial segregation in the military, paving the way for integrated combat units.
  
  

• Significance 2: Served as a model for future civil rights legislation promoting equality.
  
  

78. Eisenhower’s “New Look”

• Definition: A Cold War defense policy emphasizing nuclear weapons and air power over conventional forces.
  
  

• Significance 1: Reduced defense spending while maintaining deterrence through the threat of massive retaliation.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced U.S. reliance on nuclear deterrence throughout the Cold War.
  
  

79. McCarthy Era (1950s)

• Definition: A period of intense anti-communist suspicion and political repression led by Senator Joseph McCarthy.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to military investigations and loyalty oaths, undermining morale and careers.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the tension between civil liberties and national security during the Cold War.
  
  

80. Sputnik (1957)

• Definition: The first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union, starting the space race.
  
  

• Significance 1: Exposed U.S. technological vulnerabilities, leading to massive increases in defense and space spending.
  
  

• Significance 2: Prompted the creation of NASA and the strengthening of science education in the U.S.
  
  

81. Gary Powers (1960)

• Definition: U.S. U-2 spy plane pilot shot down over the Soviet Union, causing an international incident.
  
  

• Significance 1: Embarrassed the U.S. government and derailed a planned peace summit with the USSR.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the risks of Cold War espionage and covert military operations.
  
  

82. Ho Chi Minh

• Definition: Communist leader of North Vietnam and key figure in the fight against French and American forces.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led Vietnamese independence and the North Vietnamese war effort during the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 2: Became a symbol of anti-colonial and communist movements worldwide.
  
  

83. Dien Bien Phu (1954)

• Definition: A decisive battle where Vietnamese forces defeated the French, ending French colonial rule in Indochina.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led directly to U.S. involvement in Vietnam to contain communism.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked the end of European imperialism in Southeast Asia.
  
  

84. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• Definition: A confrontation between the U.S. and USSR over Soviet missiles placed in Cuba.
  
  

• Significance 1: Brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before a peaceful resolution was reached.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to the establishment of a direct communication “hotline” between Washington and Moscow.
  
  

85. Domino Theory

• Definition: The belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow.
  
  

• Significance 1: Justified U.S. intervention in Korea, Vietnam, and other Cold War conflicts.
  
  

• Significance 2: Became a central tenet of Cold War foreign policy, shaping U.S. military strategy for decades.
  
  

86. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

• Definition: Congressional resolution authorizing President Johnson to take military action in Vietnam.
  
  

• Significance 1: Gave the president broad war powers without a formal declaration of war.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked the official escalation of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
  
  

87. Ia Drang (1965)

• Definition: The first major battle between U.S. forces and North Vietnamese regulars during the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated the intensity and brutality of the war early on.
  
  

• Significance 2: Showed the effectiveness of air mobility and helicopter warfare, which became a hallmark of Vietnam strategy.
  
  

88. Operation Rolling Thunder (1965–1968)

• Definition: A sustained U.S. bombing campaign against North Vietnam.
  
  

• Significance 1: Failed to break North Vietnamese resolve despite massive destruction.
  
  

• Significance 2: Increased anti-war sentiment in the U.S. due to civilian casualties and the lack of measurable success.
  
  

89. Tet Offensive (1968)

• Definition: A massive surprise attack by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces during the Vietnamese New Year.
  
  

• Significance 1: Militarily a failure for the North but a psychological victory that turned U.S. public opinion against the war.
  
  

• Significance 2: Exposed the limits of U.S. military success despite official reports of progress.
  
  

90. “Peace with Honor”

• Definition: President Nixon’s promise to end the Vietnam War while preserving U.S. dignity and credibility.
  
  

• Significance 1: Justified the policy of Vietnamization and the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops.
  
  

• Significance 2: Reflected the desire to avoid the appearance of defeat while disengaging from the war.
  
  

91. Vietnamization

• Definition: Nixon’s policy of shifting the burden of combat to South Vietnamese forces while reducing U.S. involvement.
  
  

• Significance 1: Allowed for American troop withdrawals but failed to create a self-sufficient South Vietnamese military.
  
  

• Significance 2: Delayed U.S. withdrawal but did not prevent the eventual fall of Saigon.
  
  

92. Linebacker I & II (1972)

• Definition: Major U.S. bombing campaigns intended to pressure North Vietnam during peace negotiations.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led directly to the signing of the Paris Peace Accords.
  
  

• Significance 2: Demonstrated the continued reliance on air power despite the drawdown of ground forces.
  
  

93. Paris Peace Accords (1973)

• Definition: Agreement that led to a ceasefire and the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam.
  
  

• Significance 1: Ended direct U.S. military involvement in Vietnam.
  
  

• Significance 2: Failed to prevent the eventual communist takeover of South Vietnam.
  
  

94. War Powers Act (1973)

• Definition: A law intended to limit the president’s ability to commit U.S. forces to armed conflicts without congressional approval.
  
  

• Significance 1: Passed in response to executive overreach during the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 2: Reasserted congressional authority over decisions to deploy military forces.

95. Women in Vietnam

• Definition: Women served primarily as nurses and support staff during the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Highlighted the expanding role of women in combat zones, despite official restrictions.
  
  

• Significance 2: Laid the foundation for future discussions about full gender integration in the military.
  
  

96. My Lai (1968)

• Definition: A massacre of hundreds of Vietnamese civilians by U.S. troops, later exposed by the press.
  
  

• Significance 1: Deepened anti-war sentiment and raised serious ethical questions about U.S. military conduct.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to increased media scrutiny and demands for military accountability.
  
  

97. Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali)

• Definition: World champion boxer who refused induction into the military during the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became a symbol of resistance to the draft and the anti-war movement.
  
  

• Significance 2: His stance highlighted the intersection of race, religion, and opposition to the war.
  
  

98. Watts Riots (1965)

• Definition: A major urban uprising in Los Angeles fueled by racial tensions and police brutality.
  
  

• Significance 1: Showed how domestic unrest paralleled U.S. military conflicts abroad.
  
  

• Significance 2: Raised awareness of systemic racism and economic inequality within the U.S.
  
  

99. Race & Class – Vietnam

• Definition: The Vietnam War disproportionately affected poor and minority communities.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to accusations that the draft unfairly targeted working-class and minority populations.
  
  

• Significance 2: Fueled domestic protest movements and demands for social justice.
  
  

100. Fall of Saigon (1975)

• Definition: The capture of South Vietnam’s capital by North Vietnamese forces, ending the Vietnam War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked the failure of U.S. containment policy in Southeast Asia.
  
  

• Significance 2: Symbolized the limits of U.S. military power and foreign policy intervention.
  
  

101. Ronald Reagan

• Definition: U.S. President known for his aggressive Cold War stance and military buildup.
  
  

• Significance 1: Increased defense spending and launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI).
  
  

• Significance 2: Played a key role in ending the Cold War through diplomatic pressure and military strength.
  
  

102. Central American War

• Definition: U.S.-backed anti-communist interventions in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala during the 1980s.
  
  

• Significance 1: Part of Reagan’s broader effort to contain communism in the Western Hemisphere.
  
  

• Significance 2: Generated controversy over human rights abuses and U.S. foreign policy ethics.
  
  

103. Grenada (1983)

• Definition: A U.S. invasion of the Caribbean island nation to overthrow a Marxist government.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated the U.S.’s willingness to use force in the post-Vietnam era.
  
  

• Significance 2: Reasserted American military dominance in the Western Hemisphere.
  
  

104. Panama (1989)

• Definition: U.S. military operation to remove dictator Manuel Noriega from power.
  
  

• Significance 1: Highlighted the U.S.’s continued strategic interest in Latin America.
  
  

• Significance 2: Served as a demonstration of American military power following the Cold War.
  
  

105. Saddam Hussein

• Definition: Iraqi dictator who invaded Kuwait in 1990, leading to the Gulf War.
  
  

• Significance 1: His aggression triggered Operation Desert Storm and reshaped U.S. Middle East policy.
  
  

• Significance 2: Remained a central figure in U.S. foreign policy, leading to the 2003 Iraq War.
  
  

106. Colin Powell

• Definition: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Gulf War and proponent of the Powell Doctrine.
  
  

• Significance 1: Advocated for overwhelming force and clear objectives in military engagements.
  
  

• Significance 2: Influenced U.S. military strategy in the post-Cold War era.
  
  

107. Warship Gender Integration

• Definition: The policy allowing women to serve on U.S. Navy combat ships starting in the 1990s.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked a significant step toward full gender equality in the armed forces.
  
  

• Significance 2: Increased opportunities for women in leadership and combat roles.
  
  

108. Marie Rossi-Clayton

• Definition: The first female U.S. combat pilot killed in the line of duty during the Gulf War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Symbolized the risks women faced on the front lines even before full combat integration.
  
  

• Significance 2: Became a symbol of women’s increasing roles in dangerous military positions.
  
  

109. Kuwait

• Definition: Small Gulf nation invaded by Iraq in 1990, leading to the Gulf War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Its liberation marked a swift and decisive U.S.-led coalition victory.
  
  

• Significance 2: Cemented U.S. military presence in the Middle East.
  
  

110. Desert Storm (1991)

• Definition: The combat phase of the Gulf War aimed at liberating Kuwait from Iraqi occupation.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated the effectiveness of U.S. air power and precision-guided munitions.
  
  

• Significance 2: Boosted American confidence in its military following the Vietnam War.
  
  

111. Highway of Death

• Definition: A retreating column of Iraqi forces bombed by U.S.-led coalition forces during the Gulf War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Sparked international criticism over the proportionality of U.S. military force.
  
  

• Significance 2: Raised questions about the ethics of modern warfare.
  
  

112. Battle of Mogadishu (1993)

• Definition: A failed U.S. military operation in Somalia resulting in heavy casualties, known from the film Black Hawk Down.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led to U.S. withdrawal from Somalia and greater reluctance for future humanitarian interventions.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the dangers of urban combat and guerrilla warfare against U.S. forces.
  
  

113. Northern/Southern Watch

• Definition: U.S. and coalition air operations enforcing no-fly zones over Iraq after the Gulf War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Continued pressure on Saddam Hussein’s regime throughout the 1990s.
  
  

• Significance 2: Helped maintain U.S. military presence in the Middle East.
  
  

114. “Engagement and Enlargement”

• Definition: Clinton-era foreign policy promoting democracy and free markets abroad.
  
  

• Significance 1: Guided U.S. involvement in peacekeeping missions, including Bosnia and Kosovo.
  
  

• Significance 2: Emphasized humanitarian intervention as a post-Cold War military strategy.
  
  

115. Bosnia & Kosovo (1990s)

• Definition: U.S.-led NATO interventions to stop ethnic cleansing in the Balkans.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked successful examples of humanitarian military intervention.
  
  

• Significance 2: Demonstrated the effectiveness of NATO in post-Cold War conflicts.
  
  

116. Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

• Definition: Reagan-era missile defense program, also known as “Star Wars.”
  
  

• Significance 1: Increased U.S. technological superiority during the Cold War.
  
  

• Significance 2: Pressured the Soviet Union’s economy, contributing to the end of the Cold War.
  
  

117. Iranian Hostage Crisis (1979–1981)

• Definition: Iranian militants held 52 Americans hostage for 444 days.
  
  

• Significance 1: Humiliated the Carter administration and influenced the 1980 presidential election.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked the beginning of prolonged U.S.-Iran hostility.
  
  

118. Desert One (1980)

• Definition: Failed U.S. military rescue mission to free hostages in Iran.
  
  

• Significance 1: Highlighted deficiencies in U.S. special operations capability.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to major reforms in U.S. special operations forces.
  
  

119. Beirut 1983

• Definition: A terrorist bombing of U.S. Marine barracks in Lebanon that killed 241 service members.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked a turning point in U.S. involvement in the Middle East.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to a reevaluation of U.S. military deployments in unstable regions.
  
  

120. Libya Raid (1986)

• Definition: U.S. airstrike against Libya in response to state-sponsored terrorism.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated a U.S. willingness to use military force in counterterrorism efforts.
  
  

• Significance 2: Served as a deterrent against further Libyan-backed attacks.
  
  

121. Khobar Towers (1996)

• Definition: A terrorist bombing at a U.S. military housing complex in Saudi Arabia.
  
  

• Significance 1: Raised concerns about the vulnerability of U.S. forces stationed overseas.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted rising threats from extremist groups in the Middle East.
  
  

122. USS Cole (2000)

• Definition: A U.S. Navy destroyer attacked by Al-Qaeda in Yemen.
  
  

• Significance 1: Exposed the growing threat posed by transnational terrorism.
  
  

• Significance 2: Served as a precursor to the 9/11 attacks.
  
  

123. Kenya & Tanzania (1998)

• Definition: Al-Qaeda bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa.
  
  

• Significance 1: Signaled the global reach of terrorist networks.
  
  

• Significance 2: Prompted U.S. retaliatory missile strikes in Sudan and Afghanistan.
  
  

124. Osama bin Laden

• Definition: Leader of Al-Qaeda and mastermind of the 9/11 attacks.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became the primary target of the U.S. War on Terror.
  
  

• Significance 2: His death in 2011 was a major symbolic victory in the fight against terrorism.
  
  

125. 9/11 (2001)

• Definition: Coordinated terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda on the U.S., killing nearly 3,000 people.
  
  

• Significance 1: Led directly to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the War on Terror.
  
  

• Significance 2: Resulted in the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the passage of the Patriot Act.
  
  

126. Preemption

• Definition: U.S. policy of striking potential threats before they materialize, articulated in the 2002 Bush Doctrine.
  
  

• Significance 1: Justified the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003.
  
  

• Significance 2: Marked a shift from containment to proactive military engagement.
  
  

127. Afghanistan (2001–Present)

• Definition: Site of the U.S. invasion to dismantle Al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power.
  
  

• Significance 1: Became America’s longest war, raising questions about nation-building and counterinsurgency.
  
  

• Significance 2: Ended with the controversial U.S. withdrawal in 2021.
  
  

128. Taliban

• Definition: Islamist militant group that ruled Afghanistan and harbored Al-Qaeda.
  
  

• Significance 1: Overthrown by U.S. forces in 2001 but later regained power in 2021.
  
  

• Significance 2: Represents ongoing challenges of counterterrorism and regional stability.
  
  

129. Tora Bora (2001)

• Definition: Mountainous region where Osama bin Laden escaped U.S. forces early in the War on Terror.
  
  

• Significance 1: Considered a critical missed opportunity to capture bin Laden.
  
  

• Significance 2: Highlighted the challenges of counterinsurgency in difficult terrain.
  
  

130. Operation Anaconda (2002)

• Definition: Major U.S. offensive in Afghanistan aimed at destroying Al-Qaeda and Taliban forces.
  
  

• Significance 1: Demonstrated the complexities of fighting a dispersed insurgent enemy.
  
  

• Significance 2: Emphasized the importance of joint operations between U.S. forces and allies.
  
  

131. Iraqi Freedom (2003–2011)

• Definition: U.S. military operation to overthrow Saddam Hussein and eliminate supposed weapons of mass destruction.
  
  

• Significance 1: Marked a controversial application of preemptive war policy.
  
  

• Significance 2: Led to prolonged U.S. occupation and instability in Iraq.
  
  

132. Kim Campbell

• Definition: First female combat pilot in the U.S. Air Force to fly combat missions over Baghdad during the Iraq War.
  
  

• Significance 1: Symbolized the increasing role of women in direct combat operations.
  
  

• Significance 2: Advanced the discussion on gender equality in high-risk military roles.
  
  

133. “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” (1993–2011)

• Definition: U.S. military policy that prohibited openly LGBTQ+ individuals from serving while also barring discrimination against closeted members.
  
  

• Significance 1: Reflected the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights in the armed forces.
  
  

• Significance 2: Its repeal in 2011 allowed for open service by LGBTQ+ personnel, advancing military inclusivity.