Reading and Writing - Prelims

TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION

Brainstoming

An individual or group activity
combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem solving with lateral thinking. It encourages people to come up with thoughts and ideas that can, at first, seem a bit crazy. Some of these ideas can be crafted into original, creative solutions to a problem, while others can spark even more ideas. This helps to get people unstuck by "jolting" them out of their normal ways of thinking.

There are five strategies in brainstorming:

Cubing

is a critical thinking process that involves examining a writing project from six distinct angles to generate ideas for your stalled projects. Describe your project: What is it? What is it like or unlike? What makes up its constituents? How can it be used? Finally, what are its pros or cons or how can you oppose or support it? At the end of the exercise you should have an angle or outline on how to approach your writing topic or project.
Another way of cubing is to explore three perspectives:

Firstly, describe the topic, its features, parts and challenges, then compare and contrast it with other ideas.
Secondly, trace the topic's history, influences, and evolution.
Thirdly, map the topic to similar contemporary topics and its influences.
Freewriting - involves letting your thoughts flow freely on paper or your computer screen. Set aside a time frame like 15 minutes for writing or determine to write and fill a certain number of pages and get down to it. Write whatever comes to your mind. Don’t worry about typos, spelling or any other surface-level issues of grammar and style. Just write until your time is up or your page goal is attained.

When you are done, read through what you have written. You will no doubt find a lot of filler in your text, but there will also be golden nuggets of insights, discoveries and other little gems in there that you can pick out and develop for your projects.

Even if you don’t discover any new idea nuggets, you will stir up your creative mind and unearth tit bits of raw concepts buried deep in your mind you can develop.

Listing - If you want to write about a specific topic or communicate a certain idea, jot down a list of single words and phrases that relate to the general topic you are thinking about off the top of your mind. For example, if you are thinking about producing a work of fiction, make separate lists of elements, characters or scenes you want to convey. If you are writing nonfiction, list facts, arguments, question or any other related ideas you want to cover.

Don’t outline or edit at this point. Let the activity be uninhibited. When you are finished listing, group the items on your lists in a logical manner and provide a label for each group. Write a sentence about each group and you will have several topic or theme sentences you can develop. Build on the topic sentences and define associations of the groups to get broader topics or themes with possible points to write on.

A graphic form of listing is mapping. It is also called webbing or clustering. It involves writing down ideas, and then making connections by associating similar ideas with color coded circles or underlined dominant themes, or using distinct patterns, and then showing the relationship by linking with lines.

Graphic Organizer

are visual representations of concepts that help us structure information into organizational patterns
present essential information and connect these pieces of information into a coherent framework
uses visual symbols that express thoughts, ideas, knowledge concepts, and the relationships between them. As a communication tool, it makes it easier for writers to classify their ideas and to communicate them to others. It is often done prior to writing. It helps the writer to be more coherent.

Types of Graphic Organizers:

Basic Outline	Venn Diagram
Topical Organizers - these allow writers to map out ideas through the use of either hierarchical tropical organizers or bubble topical organizers.

The Topic Outline

Recall that all headings and subheadings must be words or phrases, not sentences.
Also, the wording within each division must be parallel.
Finally, as in any outline, remember that a division or subdivision cannot be divided into one part; therefore, if there is an "A" there must be a "B," and if there is a "1" there must be a "2."

The Sentence Outline

Writing the Sentence Outline:

Write out your thesis at the top of the page.
Make a list of points you must prove to prove your thesis. What would someone have to agree with, in order to agree with the thesis?

These will be the main sections of your paper. Like the thesis, these should be complete, declarative sentences—something you can either prove or disprove.

On a new page, write your first main point. This is the thesis for that section of the paper.
Make a list of the points you have to prove to prove that point. Just as with the main points, these should be complete, declarative sentences—statements you can prove or disprove.
These are your sub-points for that section.
Repeat the process for each of your main points.

Follow these rules in outlining:

Do not mix topic and sentence outline methods.
Indent properly.
In a sentence outline, begin each point with a capital letter and place a period after each division number or letter and at the end of the sentence.
In a topic outline, begin each point with a capital letter and place a period after each division number or letter. Do not place periods after ideas.
Strive for parallel wording among outline topics and sub-topics.

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT

I. NARRATION

Narration tells a story. It relates an incident or a series of events that leads to a conclusion or ending. It tells the readers when, where, and what happened.
A narrative paragraph contains action verbs and transition words that indicate time or sequence.

The following are some transition words used to signal time or sequence order:

First, second, etc. After, next, then, eventually, soon Meanwhile, a short time later During, at the same time, simultaneously	Suddenly, instantly, momentarily The next day, following, thereafter In the end, ultimately

Narration is usually used in the humanities. In a writing class, for instance, you can write about a particular event or situation.
The narrative paragraph tells a part of a story in the first person. It shows a sequence of events connected by transition words like then, suddenly, finally, momentarily, and the next day. Also, action verbs like was walking, ran, and fell are used to indicate movement.

II. DESCRIPTION

Description gives information of what a person, an object, a place, or a situation is like. It appeals to the reader’s senses; it makes the reader see, hear, taste, smell, or feel the subject.
A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are carefully chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the mind of the reader. Literary analyses, descriptive essays, business plans, lab reports, and research papers are some examples of writing genres that use descriptive paragraphs.

III. DEFINITION

Definition explains a concept, term, or subject. Its main purpose is to tell what something is. It consists of three parts:

(1) the term, concept, or subject to be defined;

(2) the general class to which it belongs,

(3) the characteristics that differentiate it from the other members of its class.

This pattern of development is commonly used in the sciences, humanities, and business.

TIPS

You can develop your paragraphs in any pattern that suits your writing purpose.
Use narration to relate an incident or a series of events. Remember to use transition words that indicate time and sequence.
Use description to tell what someone or something is like. Remember to use concrete and specific details.
Use definition to explain a concept, term, or subject. Remember to give specific characteristics of what you are defining.

COMPARISON

To compare persons, things, places, events, situations, or ideas is to show how they are alike. You need to identify the points of comparison and make a list of similar characteristics or qualities for each point of comparison.

The following are words that signal similarities:

also like	both as… as	similarly in the same way	equally important likewise

CONTRAST

To contrast persons, things, places, events, situations, or ideas is to show how they are different. To do so, you need to make a list of the characteristics or qualities of the subjects and then identify the differences between them.

The following are words that signal contrast:

Buthowever	though on the other hand	in contrast

IV. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparison and contrast paragraphs are common in writing in many academic disciplines like the humanities, sciences, and business. Such paragraphs can be found in character analyses; various kinds of essays; political science, sociology, and historical papers; lab reports; progress reports; book and film reviews; and marketing campaigns.
A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a unifying idea or purpose. Also, it must be balanced in such a way that there is an equal amount of information for each subject to avoid bias.

V. EXEMPLIFICATION

Exemplification is one of the most common and effective ways to show or explain an idea or point (e.g., observation, opinion, belief). In this pattern of development, the main idea is explained by giving an extended example or a series of detailed examples.
Many writing assignments in various disciplines require the use of exemplification. Argumentative and exemplification essays, feature articles, reviews, reports, and case studies often use examples to prove a point.

VI. CLASSIFICATION

Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects (e.g., persons, places, things, ideas) into groups or categories according to their common or shared characteristic. The subjects can be grouped in many different ways depending on your purpose. With a purpose in mind, you can determine how to group the subjects in your list. The group or category should have a single basis of classification.
Classification is commonly done in various disciplines. Classifying historical events by year, popular TV shows by genre, diseases based on mode of transmission, cleaning products based on manufacturer, and animals based on habitat are some examples of topics in different disciplines.

USING EXEMPLIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

You can use both exemplification and classification in developing a paragraph. You can begin by classifying some ideas and then explain each idea by giving examples.

SUMMARY

Exemplification shows, proves, or explains a general idea or point by using examples.
Classification refers to sorting or arranging subjects into groups or categories according to their common or shared characteristic.
The group or category should have a single basis of classification, and the grouping or categorization must suit the purpose.
You can use both exemplification and classification in developing a paragraph.

VII. CAUSE AND EFFECT

A cause is simply “why something happens,” and an effect is “what happens.” Together, they can be used as a pattern of development in writing. With the cause-and-effect pattern, the writer can explain how an event or action leads to another.

The following words can be used to signal cause and effect:

as a resultaccordingly	because of (this) due to (this)	consequently hence/therefore/thus

There are three different ways to use the cause-and-effect pattern in writing:

Cause to Effect - the cause, which can be an event or action, can be stated right at the beginning of a paragraph, followed by sentences stating the effects. This type of organization is best for explaining a single cause with different effects.
Effect to Cause - the effect can be stated at the beginning of the text, followed by sentences and paragraphs that expound on the causes. This type of organization is best for presenting a single effect with different causes.
Consecutive Cause and Effect - in this type of organization, the causes, each with its corresponding effect, are tackled one by one in a few sentences or a paragraph. The writer explains each cause and effect completely before moving on to the next cause and effect.

KEY POINTS

A cause tells why something happens, while an effect describes what happens.
The writer can use the cause-and-effect pattern of development to explain how an event or action leads to another.
There are three ways to use the cause-and-effect pattern in writing:

(1) cause to effect manner to discuss a single cause with different effects;

(2) effect to cause manner to discuss a single effect with different causes; and

(3) consecutive cause and effect manner to discuss a cause and its effect completely before moving on to the next cause and effect

VIII. PERSUASION

A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in something. Many writing genres such as critiques or reviews, reaction papers, editorials, proposals, advertisements, and brochures make strong use of persuasive paragraphs to state opinions and to influence others.
Knowing how to write a persuasive paragraph allows you to express your personal conviction or opinion about an issue or topic and make the readers agree with or adopt your conviction or opinion. There are three common techniques that you can use in developing a persuasive paragraph:

Using Evidence - you can use strong evidence such as facts and statistics, statements of expert authorities, and research findings to create impact and establish credibility. Readers will more likely be convinced to side with your position or agree with your opinion if it is backed up by verifiable evidence.
Giving examples - another technique to persuade readers is by giving examples. Providing examples can enhance your idea or opinion and make it concrete. These examples can be based on observations or from your own personal experience. When using examples, they must be concrete, relevant, and reasonable.
Attacking an Opposing View - in this persuasive technique, you assert your opinion by attacking or criticizing someone or an opposing idea. Belittling someone’s idea, dismissing the credibility of someone or an idea, and making fun of someone’s idea are some forms of attack that can be used to strengthen your opinion. However, this technique can insult or alienate the readers if excessively done.

KEY POINTS

A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in something. There are three common techniques that you can use in developing a persuasive paragraph: using evidence, giving examples, and attacking an opposing view.

IX. PROBLEM-SOLUTION

A problem in general is an unsatisfactory situation that causes troubles or difficulties. Therefore, it needs a solution, a way to deal with the situation so that the troubles or difficulties are removed.
In writing across disciplines, the problem-solution pattern of development is used to deal with topics that pose problems and present solutions in a logical manner.
The problem-solution pattern of development is used in writing to deal with topics that pose problems and present solutions in a logical manner. It has three variations:

The problem-solution pattern is a straightforward approach. The problem is expressed in a simple statement, and a possible solution is given.

The writer states the problem directly and gives a possible solution.

In a problem-cause-solution pattern, the cause of the problem is identified and analyzed before a possible solution is presented.
In a problem-process-solution pattern, the process or procedure is discussed extensively. In the discussion, the problem is addressed; the readers are led to the solution.

Allows the writer to discuss the process or procedure that leads to the solution of the problem.