AMSCO AP World History

UNIT 7: GLOBAL CONFLICT AFTER 1900

Understand the Context

• The 20th century: A period of significant social and political upheaval.

• Emergence of challenges to existing political and social orders.

• Development of new technologies and scientific advancements.

• Two world wars marked by unprecedented destruction.

Shifting Powers

• Long-standing empires, such as the Ottoman Empire, dissolved.

• Rise of new political ideologies, e.g., communism in Russia and China.

• Nationalism and traditional rivalries fueled conflicts in Europe and its colonies.

• World War I: A major conflict involving multiple global powers.

• World War II: Even larger and more destructive, extending the scope of conflict.

• Colonized regions sought independence amidst these changes.

A Changing World

• Technological advancements transformed understanding of the universe.

• Improvements in communication, transportation, and medicine.

• Emergence of military technologies that made warfare more deadly:

  • Aircraft in World War I

  • Atomic bombs in World War II

• Mass atrocities initiated by totalitarian regimes, e.g., the Holocaust.

• Totalitarian policies led to the deaths of millions, particularly under leaders like Stalin and Hitler.

Timeline of Key Events

• 1900: Political assassination in Bosnia ignites World War I.

• 1914: World War I begins.

• 1917: Russian revolutionaries establish communist government.

• 1919: Treaty of Paris ends World War I.

• 1929: Stock market crash triggers global economic crisis.

• 1934: Mao Zedong and Chinese Communists begin the Long March.

• 1939: Nazi Germany invades Poland, starting World War II.

• 1994: Genocide in Rwanda results in 500,000-1,000,000 murders.

7.1 Shifting Power

Internal and External Factors Affecting Change

• Rebellions in Russia, China, and Mexico in the early 20th century challenged authoritarian governments.

• Established empires faced collapse due to internal pressures and external conflicts.

• Notable events leading to revolution:

  • Russia:

    • Bloody Sunday (1905): Peaceful protests met with violence, leading to unrest.

    • Revolution of 1905: Strikes and protests resulted in governmental attempts to appease.

  • China:

    • Qing Dynasty overthrown in 1911, leading to republican rule under Sun Yat-sen.

• Economic challenges weakened imperial powers and spurred revolutions.

Revolution in Russia

• Economic challenges led the government to resist reform.

• Poor infrastructure and lack of political liberties contributed to social unrest.

• Internal failures led to external military weakness.

• Bolshevik Revolution (1917): Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power to establish a communist government, promoting worker ownership of production.

Upheaval in China

• Qing Dynasty: Faced ethnic tensions and famines.

• Transition to a republic struggled with traditional ethnic identities.

• Sun Yat-sen's Three People’s Principles:

  • Democracy: Sovereignty for capable citizens.

  • Nationalism: Loyalty to central authority.

  • Livelihood: Addressing wealth inequality.

7.4 Economic Response in the Interwar Period

• Responses to economic crises after 1900 varied:

  • U.S. New Deal aimed to stimulate recovery and address inequalities.

  • Totalitarian states in Germany and Italy responded with repression and militarization.

  • Soviet Union's Five-Year Plans focused on industrialization and collectivization.

• Global impacts of the Great Depression influenced political stability worldwide.

Causes of World War I

• Nationalistic tensions and militarism in Europe set the stage.

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand ignited conflict.

• Alliances compounded the situation, pulling multiple nations into war.

Conducting World War I and II

• Both wars were characterized by total war, mobilizing entire economies.

• Introduction of new technologies, including airplanes and tanks, transformed warfare.

• Public support and propaganda played crucial roles in both conflicts.

Mass Atrocities

• The 20th century saw significant genocides:

  • Armenian genocide during WWI.

  • Holocaust's systematic extermination of six million Jews.

  • Atrocities in the Rwandan genocide and conflict in Darfur reflect ongoing issues with ethnic violence and human rights abuses.

Conclusions on Causation in Global Conflict

• Understanding the relative significance of causes is crucial:

  • Examine the interplay of nationalism, militarism, and imperialism.

  • Consider economic conditions that contributed to totalitarianism and war.

  • Assess the impact of global shifts from colonialism to independence movements.

These notes summarize the key themes and events discussed in Unit 7 regarding global conflict after 1900. They offer a detailed exploration of the shifting powers, economic responses, and the causes and atrocities associated with the two World Wars.

Unresolved Tensions After WWI

• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed harsh reparations on Germany, fostering resentment.

• Nationalistic tensions remained high in Europe, especially regarding border disputes and ethnic minorities.

• The failure of the League of Nations led to inadequate responses to aggression by nations like Japan and Italy.

• Economic instability due to the Great Depression exacerbated political tensions, enabling extremist movements.

Causes of WWII

• Nationalism: Resentment over the Treaty of Versailles contributed to German nationalism and the rise of Adolf Hitler.

• Militarism: Countries in Europe began to rearm, contributing to a culture of aggression and defense.

• Appeasement: European powers, notably Britain and France, adopted appeasement policies toward aggressive actions by Nazi Germany, emboldening further expansionism.

• Expansionism: Hitler's aggressive territorial expansion, including the invasion of Poland in 1939, was a direct catalyst for the war.

• The failure to address tensions after WWI allowed for totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan to rise, contributing to the outbreak of WWII.

### Major Genocides in the 20th Century - **Armenian Genocide**: Occurred during World War I, where Ottoman authorities systematically exterminated approximately 1.5 million Armenians. This genocide involved mass deportations, killings, and a denial of the historical truth by successive Turkish governments. - **The Holocaust**: The systematic extermination of six million Jews carried out by Nazi Germany, characterized by mass killings in concentration camps, ghettos, and through mass shootings by Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units). The Holocaust also targeted other groups, including Romani people, disabled individuals, and political dissidents. - **Rwandan Genocide**: A catastrophic event in 1994 where an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu were murdered within a span of just 100 days. This genocide was spurred by ethnic tensions between the Hutu majority and Tutsi minority, exacerbated by political conflict and colonial legacies. - **Darfur Genocide**: An ongoing conflict that began in 2003 involving mass killings and rapes perpetrated by government-backed militias (Janjaweed) against ethnic groups, primarily targeting non-Arabs. The Sudanese government's support of these militias has led to widespread humanitarian crises and displacement of millions. ### Causes of Atrocities - Often rooted in deep-seated ethnic tensions that have been inflamed by political power struggles, totalitarian regimes, or colonial legacies that exacerbate divisions among communities. ### Impacts - These atrocities have led to significant international outcry, humanitarian crises, and sophisticated global attempts at justice, including tribunals and reparations, as well as efforts for reconciliation in post-conflict societies. The legacy of these genocides continues to shape conversations around human rights, genocide prevention, and the responsibility to protect vulnerable populations in situations of ethnic and political conflict.

World War I and World War II share several similarities and differences:

Similarities:

1. Total War: Both wars were characterized by total war, where countries mobilized entire economies and societies for the war effort.

2. Global Involvement: Each conflict involved multiple nations across different continents and was marked by alliances that expanded the scale of the wars.

3. Technological Advancements: Both wars saw the introduction of new military technologies, such as aircraft and tanks, which transformed the nature of warfare.

4. Atrocities: Each conflict involved significant human rights abuses, including genocides such as the Armenian genocide during WWI and the Holocaust during WWII.

5. Economic Impact: The aftermath of both wars led to significant economic upheaval, influencing the political landscape globally.

Differences:

1. Causes: WWI was primarily sparked by nationalistic tensions and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, while WWII was heavily influenced by the unresolved tensions of WWI, the Treaty of Versailles, and the rise of totalitarian regimes.

2. Scale of Destruction: WWII was more expansive and destructive than WWI, with greater civilian casualties and widespread devastation across Europe and Asia.

3. Nature of Warfare: The strategies and technologies used differed, with WWII seeing more sophisticated warfare tactics, including aerial bombardments and blitzkrieg tactics.

4. End Results: WWI concluded with treaties like the Treaty of Versailles, whereas WWII ended with unconditional surrender of Axis powers and the subsequent establishment of the United Nations to foster international cooperation.

5. Post-war Order: The aftermath of WWII resulted in a bipolar world order dominated by the US and Soviet Union, whereas post-WWI saw the establishment of the League of Nations aimed at preventing further conflict.

1. Crimean War: Fought from 1853 to 1856, the Crimean War involved the Russian Empire against an alliance of the British Empire, France, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire, largely over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land. It marked a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe and highlighted the need for military reform in Russia.

2. Russo-Japanese War: Taking place from 1904 to 1905, this conflict was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea, leading to a stunning victory for Japan and the emergence of it as a world power.

3. Bolsheviks: The Bolsheviks were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, that seized power during the October Revolution in 1917, advocating for a socialist government in Russia.

4. Sun Yat-Sen: Known as the "Father of Modern China," Sun Yat-sen was a revolutionary leader who played a significant role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and establishing the Republic of China, advocating for three principles: nationalism, democracy, and livelihood.

5. Young Turks: This reformist movement, consisting of a coalition of various groups, aimed at modernizing and centralizing the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, ultimately leading to the 1908 revolution that restored the constitution and parliamentary government.

6. Turkification: Turkification refers to the efforts by the Turkish government in the early 20th century to promote Turkish culture and language while suppressing ethnic minorities and non-Turkish identities in the Ottoman Empire through policies of assimilation.

7. Mustafa Kemal aka Ataturk: Mustafa Kemal, later known as Ataturk, was the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey, recognized for implementing extensive reforms that secularized and modernized the nation during the early 20th century.

8. Porfirio Diaz: Serving as President of Mexico for over three decades in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Diaz's regime was marked by modernization and economic growth but also by repression and inequality, leading to the Mexican Revolution in 1910.

9. Panch Villa: A prominent Mexican revolutionary general, Pancho Villa became an iconic figure fighting against the oppression of the Diaz regime, later leading armies in the Mexican Revolution and famously conducting raids into the United States.

10. Emilio Zapata and land grants: Emilio Zapata was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution who championed agrarian reform and the redistribution of land to peasant farmers, embodying the cry for "Land and Liberty!" in his struggle against landholding elites.

11. Institutional Revolutionary Party: Founded in 1929, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominated Mexican politics for much of the 20th century, seeking to stabilize the nation after the Mexican Revolution while holding firm power through a mix of populism and authoritarianism.

12. Gavrilo Princip and Black Hand: Gavrilo Princip was a Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of the secret society known as the Black Hand, who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, an event that precipitated the outbreak of World War I.

13. Archduke Franz Ferdinand: Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination in Sarajevo in 1914 ignited the complex web of alliances that led to the outbreak of World War I.

14. MAIN: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism: These four long-term causes of World War I contributed to the heightened tensions and hostilities in Europe, where nations built up their military capabilities, formed military alliances, competed for colonial expansion, and fostered nationalist sentiments.

15. Triple Entente, aka Allies: The Triple Entente was an alliance formed in 1907 between France, Britain, and Russia to counter the military threat posed by the Triple Alliance, ultimately joining forces against the Central Powers during World War I.

16. Triple Alliance, aka Central Powers: This alliance, consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy before Italy's later defection, was formed in 1882 and played a critical role in the outbreak of World War I due to their military commitments to defend each other.

17. Self-determination: A key principle championed post-World War I, self-determination refers to the right of nations and peoples to determine their own political status and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development.

18. Conscription: Conscription, or compulsory military service, was widely implemented during both World Wars, allowing nations to rapidly expand their armed forces, which in many cases led to conflict escalation and prolonged engagements.

19. Total War: Total war is a concept where a nation mobilizes all available resources, including civilians, for the war effort, blurring the lines between combatants and civilians, and was a defining feature of both World Wars.

20. ANZAC & Gallipoli: The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) landed at Gallipoli in 1915 during World War I, aiming to secure a sea route to Russia but faced heavy losses, leading to a campaign deemed a significant national moment for Australia and New Zealand, albeit a military failure.

21. Zimmerman Telegram: A secret diplomatic communication sent in 1917 from Germany to Mexico proposing a military alliance, the Zimmerman Telegram, was intercepted by British intelligence and helped galvanize public support for the U.S. entry into World War I.

22. Trench warfare: Predominantly used during World War I, trench warfare is characterized by soldiers fighting from fortified positions dug into the ground, leading to grueling stalemates and immense loss of life, particularly on the Western Front.

23. Poison gas: Introduced during World War I, poison gas became a horrific weapon of war, causing widespread suffering and leading to the development of protective measures for soldiers, impacting the nature of battlefield tactics.

24. Machine guns: Machine guns revolutionized warfare during World War I, able to fire hundreds of rounds per minute, leading to devastating effects on advancing troops and contributing to the high casualty rates for both sides.

25. Submarines: The use of submarines, particularly by Germany in World War I, allowed for stealth attacks on enemy vessels, significantly affecting naval warfare and prompting responses like convoy systems and depth charges.

26. Airplanes: Airplanes were first used in World War I for reconnaissance and eventually for combat roles, marking the beginning of a new era in warfare where air superiority became a crucial element of military strategy.

27. Tanks: Tanks were introduced during World War I to break through the stalemate of trench warfare, providing infantry with armored support and mobility on the battlefield, fundamentally changing tactics in ground warfare.

28. Stalemate: A common occurrence in World War I, a stalemate is when opposing sides are unable to avoid mutually sustaining losses and make significant advances, largely seen on the Western Front with trench warfare.

29. Paris Peace Conference: Convened in 1919 to negotiate the terms of peace after World War I, the conference resulted in the Treaty of Versailles and set out the framework for post-war international relations but also created conditions for future conflicts.

30. 14 Points: A framework proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 for peace negotiations, the 14 Points emphasized national self-determination, free trade, open diplomacy, and the establishment of the League of Nations.

31. Treaty of Versailles: Signed in 1919, the Treaty of Versailles officially ended World War I and imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany, which contributed to strained relations and the rise of extremism in Europe.

32. Reparations: Following World War I, reparations imposed on Germany were part of the Treaty of Versailles, requiring Germany to pay for war damages which contributed to economic hardship and resentment.

33. League of Nations: Founded as part of the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations aimed to promote peace and prevent future conflicts through collective security and diplomacy, though it ultimately failed to prevent World War II.

34. Great Depression: The global economic downturn that began in 1929 led to widespread hardships, contributing to the rise of totalitarian regimes and extremist movements around the world as countries struggled to recover economically.

35. Keynesian economics: Advocated by economist John Maynard Keynes, Keynesian economics emphasizes government intervention in the economy, particularly during recessions, and influenced policies during and after the Great Depression to stimulate economic activity.

36. FDR and New Deal: Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal was a series of programs and reforms initiated during the Great Depression aimed at economic recovery, job creation, and providing social welfare, reshaping the role of government in American life.

37. Russian Revolution and Bolsheviks: The Russian Revolution in 1917 led to the collapse of the Tsarist regime and the rise of the Bolsheviks, who established a communist government under Lenin, radically transforming Russian society and politics.

38. NEP: The New Economic Policy (NEP), initiated by Lenin in the early 1920s, allowed for a degree of private enterprise and market mechanisms in the Soviet economy, aimed at recovering from the civil war's devastation.

39. Industrial Revolution Party: While a specific party may not be directly referred to, the context likely relates to the progressive movements that embraced industrialization and promoted reforms during the Industrial Revolution era in various countries.

40. Fascist corporatism: This economic system, associated with fascist regimes, combines private enterprise with strong government control, aiming to integrate industry and labor within a national framework to promote state interests.

41. Spanish Civil War and France: The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a conflict between the Republicans and Nationalists, drawing in foreign powers like France which provided limited support to the Republican side, highlighting the ideological battles preceding World War II.

42. Hypernationalism: A form of extreme nationalism that can lead to xenophobia, militarism, and aggressive foreign policy, hypernationalism was evident in several regimes before and during World War II, contributing to escalated tensions in Europe.

43. Stalin: As leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until 1953, Joseph Stalin implemented policies of rapid industrialization and collectivization while maintaining a regime characterized by purges, terror, and widespread repression.

44. Five Year Plans: Initiated by Stalin, these centralized economic goals aimed at rapid industrialization and agricultural collectivization in the Soviet Union, profoundly impacting its economy and society during the 1930s and beyond.

45. Collectivization: A policy implemented by Stalin that sought to consolidate individual landholdings into collective farms, aimed at increasing agricultural productivity but resulting in widespread famine and suffering, particularly in Ukraine.

46. Big Three: Refers to the leaders of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union during World War II (FDR, Churchill, and Stalin) who met at key conferences to coordinate military strategies and post-war rebuilding plans.

47. Mandate system: Established after World War I, the mandate system allowed Western powers to govern former territories of the Ottoman Empire and Germany while supposedly preparing them for self-governance under League of Nations oversight.

48. Balfour Declaration: Issued in 1917, this statement by the British government promised support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, a pivotal moment in the history of Zionism and Middle Eastern politics.

49. Pan-Arabism: An ideological movement advocating for the political unity and cultural connection of Arab countries, pan-Arabism gained prominence in the mid-20th century as a response to colonialism and external influences in the Arab world.

50. Indian National Congress: Founded in 1885, the Indian National Congress became the principal organization advocating for Indian independence from British rule, playing a key role in the struggle against colonialism and the eventual partition of India in 1947.

51. Amritsar Massacre: The Amritsar Massacre of 1919 saw British troops fire on peacefully protesting Indian civilians, killing hundreds and leading to increased nationalistic fervor and demands for independence from British colonial rule.

52. Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent leader in the Indian independence movement, advocating for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience against British rule, significantly influencing global movements for civil rights and freedom.

53. Salt March: Led by Gandhi in 1930, the Salt March was a nonviolent protest against British salt taxes where participants marched 240 miles to the sea, symbolizing resistance against colonial oppression and galvanizing support for Indian independence.

54. Jinnah: Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the leader of the All-India Muslim League and played a crucial role in the creation of Pakistan, advocating for the rights of Muslims in India and ultimately negotiating for the partition of India in 1947.

55. Nehru: Jawaharlal Nehru, a key figure in the Indian independence movement and the first Prime Minister of India, emphasized secularism, democracy, and economic modernization in his vision for post-colonial India.

56. March First Movement: The March First Movement of 1919 in Korea was a nationwide anti-Japanese protest seeking independence, inspiring a sense of national identity and continuing resistance against colonial rule.

57. May Fourth Movement: This 1919 cultural and political movement in China arose in response to dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, promoting science, democracy, and nationalism, leading to a reevaluation of Chinese traditions and modernity.

58. Mao Zedong: As a founding father of the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong led the Communist Party in a long revolutionary struggle, advocating for land reforms and socialism while implementing significant campaigns like the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.

59. Chiang Kai-shek: A prominent Chinese nationalist leader, Chiang Kai-shek headed the Kuomintang and played a critical role in the struggle against both Japanese invasion and the Chinese Communist Party during the civil war.

60. Long March: The Long March (1934-1935) was a strategic retreat undertaken by the Chinese Communist Party to evade the Nationalist forces, solidifying Mao's leadership and the party's resolve despite tremendous hardships.

61. Nazi Party: The National Socialist German Workers' Party, led by Adolf Hitler, came to power in Germany in the 1930s, promoting a fascist ideology characterized by extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and militarism, ultimately leading to World War II.

62. Weimar Republic: The democratic government of Germany established after World War I, the Weimar Republic faced significant economic challenges, political extremism, and societal unrest, eventually culminating in its collapse and the rise of Nazi power.

63. Nuremberg Laws: Enacted in 1935, these racially-based laws in Nazi Germany institutionalized anti-Semitism by stripping Jews of citizenship and prohibiting intermarriage with non-Jews, forming the legal foundation of persecution.

64. Axis Powers: The coalition of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II that opposed the Allies, the Axis Powers aimed at territorial expansion and establishing totalitarian regimes throughout Europe and Asia.

65. Kristallnacht: Translated as "Night of Broken Glass," this 1938 pogrom against Jews in Nazi Germany marked a significant escalation in the anti-Jewish violence, characterized by widespread destruction of property and arrests of Jewish individuals.

66. Appeasement: A diplomatic policy used primarily by Britain and France in the lead-up to World War II, appeasement involved conceding to certain demands of aggressive totalitarian states like Nazi Germany in hopes of avoiding conflict, ultimately failing to prevent war.

67. Anschluss: The annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938, Anschluss demonstrated Hitler's aggressive expansionist policy, which was largely unopposed by European powers at that time.

68. Sudetenland: A region in Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans, the Sudetenland was ceded to Germany in 1938 following the Munich Agreement, reflecting the policy of appeasement and the rising threat of Nazi Germany.

69. Chamberlain: British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain is often associated with the policy of appeasement toward Nazi Germany, notably at the Munich Conference in 1938, where he believed he had secured "peace for our time."

70. Munich Pact: Signed in 1938, this agreement permitted Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland in exchange for a promise of no further territorial expansion, a key example of failed appeasement that contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

71. Nonaggression Pact: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed between Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939, ensured that both countries would not attack each other and included secret protocols for dividing Eastern Europe, leading to the invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II.

72. Blitzkrieg: Literally meaning "lightning war," blitzkrieg was a military strategy employed by Germany during WWII, characterized by fast-moving and coordinated attacks involving airpower and ground forces to achieve quick victories.

73. Battle of Britain: This pivotal air campaign in 1940 was waged by the German Luftwaffe against the United Kingdom, representing the first major defeat of Hitler's military forces and a turning point in World War II as British resilience ensured the country remained unconquered.

74. Churchill: Winston Churchill served as the British Prime Minister during World War II, renowned for his leadership, stirring speeches, and determination to resist Nazi Germany, playing a crucial role in uniting the Allies against the Axis powers.

75. Leningrad: The city of Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) suffered a prolonged and devastating siege by German forces during WWII from 1941 to 1944, leading to extreme hardship and famine for its residents but ultimately enduring as a symbol of Soviet resilience.

76. Stalingrad: The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) was one of the largest and bloodiest confrontations of World War II, marking a turning point in the war as Soviet forces successfully defended the city against the Germans, leading to a major defeat for the Axis powers.

77. Pearl Harbor: The surprise military strike by the Japanese on December 7, 1941, against the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor resulted in significant losses for the U.S. and led directly to America's entry into World War II.

78. Midway: The Battle of Midway in June 1942 was a critical naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II, where U.S. forces achieved a decisive victory against Japan, turning the tide of the war in favor of the Allies.

79. Coral Sea: The Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942 marked the first major naval engagement fought entirely by aircraft and resulted in a strategic victory for the Allies, stopping the Japanese advance towards Australia.

80. Island hopping: This military strategy used by the Allies during WWII involved capturing islands in the Pacific while bypassing heavily fortified ones, allowing for a gradual approach toward Japan and the eventual victory in the Pacific Theater.

81. D-Day: The Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, known as D-Day, was a significant military operation that marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation.

82. Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 by the United States forced Japan's surrender, leading to the end of World War II but starting a contentious global debate over nuclear weapons ethics and implications.

83. Dresden: The Allied bombing of Dresden in February 1945 resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life, raising ethical questions about the bombing campaign and contributing to discussions about military tactics during the war.

84. Armenian Genocide: Occurring during World War I, the Armenian Genocide involved the systematic extermination of approximately 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire, representing one of the first modern genocides.

85. Pandemic 1918: The 1918 influenza pandemic, often referred to as the Spanish Flu, caused the deaths of millions worldwide, exacerbated by the conditions of World War I and impacting societal health and economies post-war.

86. Forced Famine in Ukraine: The Holodomor, a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine during 1932-1933, resulted in millions of deaths as a result of Stalin's policies of grain requisition and collectivization, viewed as a crime against humanity.

87. Holocaust/Final Solution: The Holocaust refers to the systematic extermination of six million Jews and millions of others by Nazi Germany during World War II, implemented through the "Final Solution" as a horrific manifestation of anti-Semitism and totalitarianism.

88. Rwanda (Hutu and Tutsi): The Rwandan Genocide in 1994 saw the mass slaughter of Tutsi and moderate Hutu by extremist Hutu forces, culminating in the deaths of an estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 people in just 100 days, reflecting deep ethnic tensions and political strife.

89. Darfur: The Darfur conflict, starting in 2003, involves mass atrocities and violence against non-Arab ethnic groups by government-backed militias, leading to international condemnation and humanitarian crises, alongside debates over genocide and human rights intervention.