Untitled Flashcards Set

Introduction to perception

• The cognitive perspective 

  • Key Idea: Studies mental processes(perception, thinking, memory, intelligence, etc.) and how they impact behavior 

  • Key people: George Miller, Jean Piaget 

  • Major Subsection: Gestalt Psychology 

    • Key word: PERCEPTION 

  • Bottom-up processing 

    • Relies on sensory information

      • Recall: Sensory receptors send signals to the brain 

    • Top-down Processing 

      • Relies on prior expectations

        • Prior knowledge, opinions, assumptions, etc. 

  • Top-down processing is influenced by internal and external factors 

    • Schemas- Building blocks of understanding

      • Assimilation 

        • Interpreting new experiences in terms of current schemas 

      • Accommodation 

        • Adapting our schemas based on new information 

    • Perceptual sets

      • A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way

        • Contexts, experiences, expectations, motivations, etc

      • Past experiences and preconceived notions influence our expectations 

        • Can be individual or based in larger culture 

    • Attention- Interaction of sensation and perception 

      • Selective Attention 

        • Occurs when we voluntarily focus on a portion of sensory input while ignoring others 

      • Divided Attention 

        • Occurs when focus is on multiple sensory inputs. This disrupts perception abilities 

• Cocktail Party Effect 

  • Ability to filter our nearly everything except what is most important to us 

    • Function of selective attention 

  • Ex; People attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments 

• Inattentional Blindness

  • Can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment 

  • Failing to notice something because attention is placed elsewhere or something was unexpected 

• Change  Blindness 

  • A form of inattentional blindness where there is a failure to notice a change in the environment 

Specific Topics in Perception 

• Gestalt Psychology 

  • German movement that sought to explain perception using patterns 

  • “The whole is different than the sum of its parts” 

  • 4 principles 

    • Closure 

      • Ability to fill in the gaps with what should be there to create a complete project

    • Figure & Ground 

      • The brain organizes info into objects(figures) that stand out from the background(ground)

    • Proximity

      • Tendency to group things that appear close together 

    • Similarity 

      • Tendency to group things based on similar appearance(color, shape, size, etc.)

• Depth Perception 

  •    Images that hit the retina are two dimensional 

  • However, our brains cans till perceive a 3-d world using various “cues”(binocular and monocular) 

    • This allows us to judge distance 

• Monocular cues rely on the use of one eye 

  • Relative Clarity 

    • Understanding depth based on how detailed  an image is. Closer objects are clear while farther ones are hazy

  • Relative Size

    • Judging depth based on size. Closer objects cast larger images on the retina than farther objects.

  • Linear Perspective

    • When lines (drawn or imagined) appear to converge at a point in the horizon 

  • Interposition 

    • Using potions of objects. Closer images partially block farther images. 

  • Texture Gradient 

    • Determining depth by the appearance of texture. The closer the object, the more apparent its texture will appear. 

• Constancies 

  • Ability to perceive that an object doesn’t change ven when there is changes in sensory input 

    • Maintains perception despite change in size, shape, brightness, etc. 

• Size Constancy 

  • The brain shrinks its perceived distance of an object as it gets closer(to adjust for it now projecting a larger image) or vice versa 

• Color Constancy 

  • Maintaining perception of the color of an object despite changes in luminance (The amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings) 

• Stroboscopic motion 

  • A rapid succession of slightly varying images is perceives as motion even though the image isn’t moving 

    • Experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images 

  • This is how animation, gifs, etc. work on our brain 

Thinking and problem solving 

• Thinking 

  • Cognition 

    • All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating 

  • Metacognition:”thinking about thinking”

    • Evaluate mental processes(reflection) 

    • Self-regulation 

    • Self-understanding 

• Basics of thinking 

  • Concepts: mental groupings of similar objects,events,ideas, or people 

    • Bases of thought 

  • From concepts, we form category hierarchies 

    • Basic: chairs

    • Superordinate: more broa(places to sit) 

    • Subordinate: more detailed(types of chairs) 

  • Prototype 

    • The ideal example for any given concept 

      • Has all essential aspects of the concept

      • Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method fo soling items into categories

• Critical thinking goes beyond basic concepts and prototypes 

  • Assessment based on evidence and reason(not emotion or stories )

  • WIllingness to ask questions 

  • Considerations of bias, oversimplification, and other interpretations 

  • Acceptance of uncertainty

• Creative Thinking 

  • Another advances form of thinking 

  • Ability to produce original and valuable ideas within any discipline 

  • Common Characteristics

    • Expertise

    • Intelligence 

    • Imagination 

    • “Open” personality 

    • High levels of motivation 

• Creativity is based on divergent thinking(not convergent) 

• Divergent thinking 

  • Expanding the number of potential answers 

  • Required when a question has multiple possible responses 

  • Encourages creativity 

• Convergent Thinking 

  • Narrowing the number of potential answers 

  • Leads to just one correct answer 

  • Discourages creativity 

• Problem SOlving 

  • Executive functions 

    • Cognitive processes that allow us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behaviors

      • Critical an creative thinking are related 

• Algorithms

  • A methodical,logical procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem 

    • Ex; following instructions step by step when cooking ot building a bookcase, solving algebra equations, etc. 

• Heuristics 

  • Mental shortcuts(“rule of thumb”) that allow for speedy judgements and decisions

    • Ex; choosing a restaurant based on a lare crowd, making friends based on proximity 

Errors in judgements and Decision Making 

• Cognitive biases can lead to errors when trying to problem solve

  • Hindsight bias 

    • Overestimating our ability to have foreseen an outcome of an event after it has happened

  • Illusory Correlation 

    • Incorrect belief that a correlation is actually causation 

• Representativeness Heuristic 

  • Assessing something/someone based on how they match our prototypes 

  • Based on prior expectations or stereotypes 

    • Can lead to inaccurate conclusions or judgements 

• Availability Heuristic

  • Making a decision based on how available info is in memory 

  • “First thing to come to mind” 

    • Revent or vivid events are more influential 

• Fixation: an inability to see a problem from another perspective 

  • Mental Set

    • Tendency to approach a problem in ways that have worked in the past 

  • Functional Fixedness

    • Thinking of items only in terms of their intended function 

• Gambler’s fallacy 

  • Incorrectly believing a random event is more or less likely to occur based on results of previous events 

• Sunk Cost Fallacy

  • Tendency to continue a behavior due to resources invested in it(even if the event is undesired)

    • Don’t want previous efforts to be for nothing 

• Additional Cognitive Errors

  • Anchoring Effect 

    • Cognitive bias where an “anchor” influences our interpretation of information 

  • Effort Justification 

    • Tendency to think higher of actions after a lot of effort has been put in 

Intro to memory

• Explicit memories: require conscious thought to bring to mind

  • Episodic memories

    • Past events from personal experiences. Recounting a story from your past

  • Semantic memories

    • Basic facts and information. These are not personal 

• Implicit memories: Retained without conscious effort or awareness

  • More challenging to describe or explain to others

• Procedural memories are of how to do something

  • Procedures and processes like tying your shoes, cooking, reach this classroom, etc.

• Biology of Memory 

  • Long-term potentiation 

    • Process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation 

      • Biological basis of memory

      • Based on repetition 

• The currently accepted model of memory is called the multi-store model

• Sensory memory: occurs when processing what we sense

  • Iconic memories

    • A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli 

  •  Echoic memories

    • A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

• Short-term memory

  • Holds info briefly before it is either stored or forgotten

    • Usually around 15-30 seconds

    • Vulnerable to interruption or interference 

• Memory Span

  • The number of items a person can remember and repeat back using short term memory 

• Long-term memory

  • Final stage of memory

    • Can store information indefinitely 

    • Based on relative importance to individual

Encoding Memories 

• The multi-store model focuses on:

  • Encoding

  • Rehearsal

  • Retrieval

• Working memory

  • A newer understanding of short-term memory that accounts for conscious, active processing of information in to long-term memory

• Working memory model

  • Central executive

    • Coordinates processing of information 

  • Phonological loop 

    • Briefly hold auditory information

  • Visuospatial Sketchpad

    • Briefly holds visual information 

• Encoding

  • Processes and strategies to get information into memory

    • Sensory memory → short-term/working memory 

    • Short-term/working memory → Long-term memory 

  • How information is encoded can determine how effectively it is stored and retrieved

• Automatic Processing

  • Encoding of memories without conscious thought, Happens and most often with well known and often repeated activities 

  • Related to implicit memory

• Effortful Processing

  • Using conscious effort to encode memories. Used to remember new information

  • Related to explicit memories

• The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels

  • Structural 

    • Based on appearance

  • Phonemic

    • Based on sound

  • Semantic 

    • Based on meaning

• Improving encoding 

  • Encoding can be improved by grouping information together

    • Categories

    • Hierarchies

  • Chunking

    • Grouping information into meaningful “chunks”

• Massed practice

  • Encoding attempts happen all at once

    • Ex; cramming for a test

• Distributed practice

  • Ending attempts are spread out over time

    • Ex; studying each night 

• Primary effect

  • Items at the start of a list are more memorable

• The middle of a list is the most forgettable, unless the item is very unique or stands out for some reason

• Recency effect

  • Items at the end of a list are more memorable

• Serial position effect

  • Encoding can be affected by the order of how information is presented

• Mnemonic devices

  • Techniques that help people remember information by associating it with something easier to recall

    • Semantic encoding 

    • Processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory

• Method of loci

  • Type of mnemonic device using visualization and association to remember things.

Storing and retrieving memories 

• Storage

  • Information is stored and arranged for future use 

    • Retaining encoded information over time 

    • Function of working and long term memory

  • Repeated rehearsal can help store information 

• Maintenance Rehearsal

  • Repeating information to keep it in short term memory

    • Increases length by about 30 seconds 

  • Storage may be prolonged by rehearsing information over time 

• Elaborative Rehearsal

  • Liking new information with existing memories and knowledge 

    • Create meaningful associations

    • Semantic encoding(deeper processing)

  • This helps with memory retention

• Some people have superior memory storage capabilities

  • Autobiographical memory

    • Recall and combine past experiences into a story. Type of memory that some excel at

• Savants

  • Rare condition where someone demonstrates memory abilities far above average

• Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment(including bain injuries) and developmental limitations

  • Amnesia is one example

  • Infantile amnesia

    • Inability to recall episodic memories from early childhood

• Retrograde Amnesia

  • Forgetting events that occurred before the injury 

    • Ex; forget what happens before a blow to the head

    • Procedures stay in tact

• Anterograde Amnesia

  • Inability to form new long ter memories

  • Long term memories from before injury remain but new ones can’t be formed

• Alzheimer’s Disease

  • An example of a brain disorder that causes issues with storage

  • Begins and difficulty remembering new information and progresses into an ability to do everyday tasks

    • The most common cause of dementia in late adulthood

• Retrieval: Process of recalling information from storage

  • Recognition

    • Identifying information from a list of potential options

      • (called retrieval cues)

  • Recall

    • Retrieving information from memory directly

      • (without cues)

• Priming

  • Process where cues lead to an unconscious retrieval from long term memory

    • Implicit memories

    • Based on sensations

  • Also influences thinking and decision making

• State-dependent

  • Retrieval is more efficient when in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed 

  • Ex: being heavily caffeinated 

• Mood-dependent

  • Retrieval is easier when in a mood similar to when it was acquired. Emotions have to be genuine

• Context-Dependent

  • Retrieval of information when in the same context or environment is easier

  • Ex; a high school reunion 

• Prospective memory

  • Memory related to future actions

  • Remembering to perform a planned action or complete a planned intention 

• Ways to improve memory

  • Rehearse repeatedly 

  • Make the material meaningful

  • Activate retrieval cues 

  • Use mnemonic device

• Testing effect

  • Enhanced memory after retrieving, information 

  • The more you use a memory, the better you;ll get a retreating it.