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Unit 5: Cognition & Learning Study Guide Notes

Unit 5: Cognition & Learning Study Guide for Unit Test

Learning Behaviorism & the Behavioral Perspective

Classical Conditioning: Associative Learning

  • Definition: Learning through the association of stimuli.
  • Key Terms:
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without conditioning.
    • Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially elicits no response.
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response.
    • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
  • Processes:
    • Extinction: The reduction of a conditioned response when the CS is presented without the UCS.
    • Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of a previously extinguished CR after a pause.
    • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.
    • Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
  • Applications: Aversion and Habituation.

Key Researchers

  • John Watson: Focused on behaviors and conditioning.
  • Ivan Pavlov: Conducted experiments involving dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition: A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
  • Key Terms:
    • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of behavior; can be positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing an aversive stimulus).
    • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of behavior; can also be positive (adding an aversive stimulus) or negative (removing a pleasant stimulus).
    • Primary Reinforcer: Satisfies a biological need.
    • Secondary Reinforcer: Has no inherent value but is associated with primary reinforcers.
  • E.L. Thorndike’s Research: Developed the Law of Effect, stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Every instance of behavior is reinforced.
  • Partial Reinforcement: Not all instances are reinforced, can be fixed or variable interval or ratio schedules.

Social Learning Theory & Cognitive Learning

  • Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
  • Key Researcher: Albert Bandura, famous for the Bobo doll experiment demonstrating modeling.
  • Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in behavior.
  • Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of physical locations.

Memory

  • Processes of Memory:
    • Encoding: The conversion of information into a form usable in memory.
    • Storage: The maintenance of encoded information over time.
    • Retrieval: The act of recalling or using previously encoded information.

Types of Memory

  • Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
  • Implicit (Procedural) Memory: Memory of skills and how to perform them without conscious thought.
  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts about the world.
  • Episodic Memory: Memories of specific events and experiences.
  • Flashbulb Memory: Highly detailed and vivid memory of a significant moment.

Biological Processes Influencing Memory

  • Long-term Potentiation: A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between neurons.
  • Brain Structures:
    • Hippocampus: Essential for forming new memories.
    • Cerebellum: Involved in procedural memory and motor control.
    • Amygdala: Plays a role in emotional memories.
    • Basal Ganglia: Involved in habit formation and learning motor sequences.

Working Memory

  • Components:
    • Central Executive: Manages attention and coordinates the other components.
    • Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information.
    • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information.

Multi-store Memory Model

  • Sensory Memory: Initial brief storage of sensory information (includes Iconic for visual and Echoic for auditory).
  • Short-term Memory (STM): Holds about 7 ± 2 items for a brief duration.
  • Working Memory: Active manipulation and processing of information.
  • Long-term Memory (LTM): Storage of information over an extended period.

Processing Levels

  • Deep Processing: Meaningful analysis leading to better retention.
  • Shallow Processing: Focus on surface features (e.g., appearance, sound).

Memory Enhancement Techniques

  • Mnemonic Devices: Techniques for improving memory through associations.
  • Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units.
  • Hierarchies: Organizing information using a structured framework.
  • Spacing Effect: Better retention of information when study sessions are spaced out.
  • Serial Positioning: Tendency to recall the first (primacy) and last (recency) items better than the middle items.

Amnesia

  • Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall memories preceding a traumatic event.
  • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a traumatic event.

Context and Mood in Memory

  • Context-Dependent Memory: Retrieval of episodic memories is improved when the context at retrieval matches that at encoding.
  • Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall memories that match one’s current mood.

Types of Interference

  • Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with the learning of new information.
  • Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the recall of old information.

Misinformation Effect

  • Incorporation of misleading or false information into one's memory of an event.

Intelligence

  • General Abilities Theories:

    • Spearman: Proposed 'g' as general intelligence.
    • Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC): A comprehensive model of intelligence.

  • Multiple Abilities Theories:

    • Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Intelligence is made up of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
    • Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Proposed various types of intelligences (e.g., logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial).

Emotional Intelligence

  • The ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) & Mental Age

  • IQ: A score derived from standardized tests designed to measure intelligence.
  • Mental Age: The age level at which an individual performs intellectually.

Intelligence Tests

  • Examples: WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), Stanford-Binet.
  • Psychometric Principles: Important considerations include
    • Standardization: Consistency in testing conditions.
    • Reliability: The extent to which a test yields consistent results.
    • Validity: The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.
    • Factor Analysis: A statistical method used to identify underlying relationships between variables.
    • Flynn Effect: The observed rise over time in standardized test scores.

Sociocultural Considerations

  • Socioculturally Responsive Tests: Tests adapted to be fair across different sociocultural backgrounds.
  • Stereotype Threat: The risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group, which can affect performance.
  • Sociocultural Biases: Influences that can lead to unequal testing conditions or unfair assumptions regarding intelligence based on cultural background.

Concepts of Mindset

  • Eugenics: The controversial study and belief in improving genetic qualities through selective breeding.
  • Fixed Mindset: The belief that abilities and intelligence are static and cannot be improved.
  • Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed with effort, learning, and persistence.