Lecture-Age of Discovery-pt

Historical Context

• Renaissance & Reformation (covered in Western Civ I) already reshaped European thought, religion, and technology.

• 15th – 16th centuries mark a shift from Europe as the single geographic center of “the West” to a trans-Atlantic civilization after overseas expansion.

• European exploration inaugurates the so-called “New World,” permanently linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

Core Question: Why Did Europeans Begin Oceanic Exploration?

• Historians emphasize MULTIPLE, intersecting causes; no single “smoking gun.”

• Key clusters of causation: intellectual curiosity, trade/wealth, technology, political patronage, religion, and personal fame.

Intellectual & Cultural Curiosity

• Long-standing Western fascination with the “unknown” beyond familiar borders.

• Marco Polo (13th c. Venetian) becomes a celebrity chronicling the Far East.

  • His Travels are mass-produced after the invention of the movable-type printing press (mid-1400s—described by the lecturer as “the most important technological innovation in the modern era in the West.”)

  • Illustration: Polo riding an elephant—symbol of exotic wonders.

• Early “travel literature” cultivates a European reading public eager for tales of distant lands.

• Sir John Mandeville (14th c.)—possibly fictitious—describes fantastical creatures; reprinted widely, shaping European expectations of the Americas.

Scientific & Geographic Rediscoveries

• Renaissance humanists recover Ptolemy’s Geographia (2nd c. AD).

  • Supplies a reasonably accurate—though circumference-underestimated—world map.

  • Reinforces the concept of a spherical Earth, a pre-condition for westward navigation.

Geopolitical Shock: Fall of Constantinople 1453

• Ottoman Turks capture the Byzantine capital, closing the Silk Road’s main overland artery.

• With the East blocked, merchants and monarchs seek an alternate sea route to Asian spices, textiles, and other luxuries.

• Logic: If the Earth is round, sail west to reach the “Far East.”

Key Maritime & Navigational Technologies

• Caravel (Portuguese/Spanish design): sturdy, fast, highly maneuverable; ideal for open-ocean voyages.

• Astrolabe (borrowed from Islamic civilization): uses stellar positions for latitude calculation.

• Improvements in cartography, rigging, and compass reliability accompany these ships.

Early Leaders: Portugal & Spain

• Geography: Portugal’s Atlantic frontage makes it Europe’s “launchpad.”

• Prince Henry “the Navigator” funds repeated probes down Africa’s west coast.

• Spain (unified by Ferdinand & Isabella) quickly rivals Portugal.

  • Employs foreign captains—e.g., Genoese Christopher Columbus—if results promise wealth.

  • Arms-race mentality: if Portugal explores, Spain must also.

“Three G’s” Motives Summarized

• Gold

  • Precious metals in the Americas (especially gold & silver) drive royal sponsorship.

  • Conquistadors granted licenses to conquer and mine.

• God

  • Catholic monarchs view new territories as mission fields.

  • After the Protestant Reformation (16th c.), the Americas become a front in the Catholic–Protestant contest.

  • Orders involved:

  • Franciscans & Recollets initiate early missions.

  • Jesuits later dominate, practicing enculturation—learning local languages & customs to evangelize “from within.”

    • Sometimes protect Indigenous groups against European abuse (depicted in the 1980s film The Mission).

• Glory

  • Personal fame for explorers; national prestige for sponsors.

  • Public acclaim fueled by print—voyage accounts become bestsellers.

Representative Figures & Events

• Hernán Cortés (1519–1521)

  • Leads conquest of the Aztec Empire.

  • Exploits Indigenous resentment of Aztec domination; forges native alliances.

  • Smallpox & other diseases devastate Aztec population.

  • Later critics (e.g., Bartolomé de las Casas) denounce Spanish brutality; modern scholars debate the term “genocide.”

• Christopher Columbus (4 voyages, 1492–1504)

  • Sailor from Genoa, backed by Spain.

  • Uses Ptolemaic underestimated-circumference map; believes he reached “India,” hence calling inhabitants “Indians.”

  • Captures global imagination; returns to Europe with goods, stories, and (reportedly) Indigenous individuals.

• Ferdinand Magellan (1519–1522)

  • Portuguese in Spanish service.

  • First expedition to circumnavigate the globe; Magellan himself killed in the Philippines, crew completes journey.

  • Coins the term Pacifica for the Pacific Ocean, noting its relative calm vs. the Atlantic.

Ethical & Demographic Consequences

• Rapid European arrival triggers massive Indigenous population decline via disease, warfare, forced labor, and cultural disruption.

• Debate over intentionality vs. inadvertent catastrophe informs modern use of terms like ethnocide or genocide.

• Mission systems reshape native societies—agriculture, settlement patterns, and religious practice.

Empire-Building Outcomes

• Portugal & Spain form the first trans-oceanic empires, later joined by France, England, and the Dutch Republic.

• Colonization sets the stage for global trade networks—precursor to modern globalization.

Connections & Continuities

• Printing press links exploration to previous information revolutions (e.g., Renaissance humanism).

• Fall of Constantinople, Reformation, and Jesuit order show how European religious politics directly influence colonial policy.

• Iberian maritime innovations diffuse to Northern Europe, enabling later English, French, and Dutch colonial ventures.

Key Dates & Numbers (Chronological Quick-List)

• 1200s – Marco Polo’s original journey.

• 1370s–1380s – Approx. composition of Sir John Mandeville’s travel tales.

• 1453 – Ottoman capture of Constantinople.

• 1450s – Gutenberg’s movable-type printing press spreads.

• 1492 – Columbus’ first voyage; Europe learns of the Caribbean.

• 1519–1521 – Cortés conquers the Aztec Empire.

• 1519–1522 – Magellan’s circumnavigation (crew completion).

• 1500s – Rapid rise of Jesuit missionary networks after the order’s founding in 1540.

Conceptual Formulas / Mnemonics

• 3 G’s ⇒ Gold + God + Glory = European Expansion

• Geography Equation (implicit): Westward Route + Round Earth + Caravel + Astrolabe ⇒ Trans-Atlantic Voyages

First European Colonial Powers (Early Age of Exploration)

• 16^{th}-century Europe’s first ocean-going colonial states: Portugal and Spain

  • Geographic advantage: western Iberian Peninsula faces Atlantic, easing trans-oceanic departures/returns

  • Both staunchly Catholic monarchies → fear that overseas rivalry could spark a European war

Papal Intervention & the Doctrine of Discovery

• A Spaniard, Rodrigo Borgia, elected pope ⇒ Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503)

• Issued papal bull Inter Caetera in 1493

  • Core idea: country that first discovers (“discovers” = arrives under Christian flag) a territory gains full sovereignty; no other Christian power may contest

  • This principle is later labelled the Doctrine of Discovery

  • Ethical blind spot: treated non-European lands as terra nullius (empty land) despite existing indigenous societies

Treaty of Tordesillas (Line of Demarcation)

• Follow-up negotiation, ultimately signed 1494 by Spanish & Portuguese envoys

  • Drew a meridian (visible on contemporary maps/illustrations) allocating:

  • West of the line ⇒ Spain

  • East of the line ⇒ Portugal

  • The pope provided formal approval (papal “seal”)

• Intended purpose: avert Iberian war by creating mutually recognised spheres of influence

• Diplomatic significance: first major Western case of “sphere carving” to pre-empt conflict — a model revived in later imperial diplomacy (e.g., 19^{th}-century “Scramble for Africa”)

Continuing Influence & Modern Controversy

• Doctrine of Discovery remains embedded in Vatican legal tradition (never formally rescinded)

• Indigenous activists highlight the doctrine’s role in colonisation & dispossession

  • 2022: During Pope Francis’s visit to Canada, indigenous protestors demanded an explicit renunciation; no definitive revocation yet, though Vatican statements imply repudiation in practice

A Persistent Western Habit: “Drawing Lines on Maps”

• Precedents & echoes:

  • Roman Emperor Diocletian (~285 CE) split empire West/East via an imaginary meridian down the Mediterranean

  • Balfour Declaration / Sykes-Picot–style mandates (1917 & post-WWI) — Britain & France divided the collapsing Ottoman domains, producing modern borders of Syria, Jordan, Iraq, etc.

• Critique: Absent on-the-ground consultation ==> borders ignore ethnic, cultural, ecological realities → later instability (e.g., Middle-East conflicts)

The Columbian Exchange: Goods, Diseases, People

• Definition: Trans-Atlantic movement of biological species, food crops, animals, pathogens, and humans initiated after 1492

• Old → New World transfers:

  • Animals: horses, cattle, pigs, sheep

  • Crops & stimulants: coffee (originating Middle East), sugarcane, wheat, olives

  • Pathogens: smallpox, measles, influenza ⇒ catastrophic epidemics among indigenous peoples who lacked immunity (demographic collapse in many regions)

• New → Old World transfers:

  • Staple crops: maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, cassava, peanuts

  • Luxuries/commodities: cacao (chocolate), tobacco, vanilla, rum

  • Net result: reshaped European diet, boosted caloric intake, altered agriculture (e.g., Irish reliance on potato)

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade & Encomienda System

• Origins: European traders exploit West African rivalries; purchase war captives → forced transport across Atlantic (Middle Passage)

  • Middle Passage marked by brutal shipboard conditions, high mortality

• Initial destinations: Caribbean & Portuguese/Spanish South America (Brazil, etc.)

• Encomienda (large Spanish estates)

  • Owners receive Crown licence to extract labour/tribute from assigned population

  • De facto slavery; harsh treatment documented by Bartolomé de las Casas

  • Spanish monarchy limits encomienda in late 1500s, yet chattel slavery persists into 19^{th} century

Emergence of the Atlantic Economy & Proto-Capitalism

• Flow of bullion, agricultural exports, and enslaved labour creates entirely new economic system centred on Atlantic basin

• Iberian monopoly slowly erodes as French, English, Dutch fleets join (late 16^{th} ⇢ 17^{th} cent.)

• Maritime commerce + joint-stock companies ⇒ foundations for modern capitalist practices (risk-sharing, insurance, long-distance credit)

Birth of Latin American Civilisation

• Tri-cultural blend:

  1. Indigenous peoples

  2. European settlers/administrators

  3. African slaves

• Christian missionary efforts (Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits) spread Catholicism; churches built in European styles, gradually integrate local motifs → Spanish colonial aesthetic

• Urban pattern: plazas, cathedrals, grid street plans modelled on Iberian precedents (e.g., Mexico City, Lima)

Intellectual & Long-Term Consequences

• Discovery narrative sparks European curiosity about unknown nature, fuelling empirical inquiry → leads toward Scientific Revolution

• Reorientation of Europe’s worldview: economic and intellectual focus shifts from East (Silk/Spice routes) to West (Atlantic world)

• Legacy debates:

  • Human cost (genocide, slavery, cultural loss) vs. technological & economic dynamism

  • Ongoing legal/ethical questions about Indigenous sovereignty, reparations, and colonial borders

Key Dates & Terms (Quick Reference)

• 1492 – Columbus’s first voyage; Alexander VI elected pope

• 1493 – Papal bull Inter Caetera; Doctrine of Discovery articulated

• 1494 – Treaty of Tordesillas (line of demarcation)

• Late 1500s – Spanish Crown begins curbing encomienda abuses

• 16^{th}–17^{th} centuries – Expansion of French, English, Dutch Atlantic empires

• 19^{th} century – Second “scramble” for colonies; Tordesillas model revisited

• 1917 – Balfour Declaration, mandate borders in Middle East

• 2022 – Indigenous protests press Pope Francis to renounce Doctrine of Discovery

Rene Descartes and Personal Reaction to War

• Former soldier; served during the Thirty Years’ War.

• Described the conflict as “stupid,” “a waste,” and other negative descriptors.

• Mentally scarred; sought refuge from chaos.

• During a stay at an inn on his way back to France, turned to mathematics for comfort.

  • Mathematics offered certainty and order, sharply contrasting the disorder he had just witnessed.

• His story illustrates an individual’s escape from wartime horrors into the calm of rational inquiry and science.

Scientific Revolution as an Escape from Religious Conflict

• 17th-century scientific revolution overlapped with the Protestant Reformation.

• Many intellectuals disgusted by religious wars (Catholic-Protestant violence) gravitated toward science.

• Science seen as:

  • A neutral territory free from sectarian strife.

  • A domain governed by universal laws rather than theological dogma.

• Descartes is a key case study of this trend.

Background: Wars of Religion in Europe

• Protestant Reformation began in 1517 (Martin Luther’s 95 Theses on Wittenberg Cathedral door).

• Holy Roman Empire (HRE) became fragmented along confessional lines.

• Multiple decades of conflict followed Luther’s break with Rome.

• Temporary peace achieved by the Peace of Augsburg (late 1550\text{s}), allowing rulers to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

• Described as the “violent crescendo” of Europe’s religious wars.

• Name is deceptively simple; the reality involved overlapping campaigns, shifting alliances, and dynastic disputes.

• Geographic core: Holy Roman Empire.

  • Over 300 principalities, duchies, and city-states, split roughly into Catholic and Protestant camps.

• Spark: Bohemia (modern Czechia).

  • Catholic–Protestant struggles over succession to the imperial throne.

• Internationalization:

  • Though an HRE-centered conflict, outside powers intervened, escalating violence.

  • Example overlap: Dutch Wars for independence from Spanish Habsburg rule.

  • Spain’s Habsburg dynasty also presided over segments of the HRE.

  • The Netherlands (Calvinist) fought Spain’s Catholic authorities, tying their struggle to broader European conflict.

Ethical & Philosophical Implications Highlighted in Lecture

• War shows how religious ideology can devolve into prolonged violence.

• Scientific inquiry appeared ethically attractive: offered universal truths unsullied by sectarian hatred.

• Descartes’ personal transformation embodies a wider shift:

  • From faith-based certainty → empirically grounded certainty.

  • Demonstrates how traumatic historical events can redirect intellectual history.

Connections to Earlier Lectures / Core Principles (Implied)

• Protestant Reformation’s fragmentation sets stage for wars discussed here.

• Peace of Augsburg previously covered as a “cuius regio, eius religio” compromise.

• Descartes later contributions (e.g., analytic geometry, Cartesian doubt) build on his wartime retreat into mathematics.

Numerical / Chronological References (in LaTeX for clarity)

• 1517 – Luther’s 95 Theses.

• 1550\text{s} – Peace of Augsburg brings temporary peace.

• 1618-1648 – Thirty Years’ War timeframe.

• 300+ – Number of semi-autonomous states in the Holy Roman Empire.

Study Tips

• Link Descartes’ biography to his philosophical method: his search for indubitable truths parallels his rejection of wartime chaos.

• Remember chronology: Reformation → Peace of Augsburg → Renaissance of conflict → Thirty Years’ War → Emergence of Scientific Revolution figures.

• Understand geographic context: Bohemia (Czechia) ignition point, HRE fragmentation, Dutch independence struggle.

• Recognize broader theme: intellectual movements often arise as responses to social and political crises.

Consequences of the Thirty Years’ War & Peace of Westphalia

• Principal outcome: emergence of France as Europe’s dominant power, eclipsing Spain, which had led during the Spanish Golden Age (Age of Exploration).
• Loss of the Spanish Netherlands and overall Spanish decline cemented French ascendancy—militarily, politically, and culturally.
• Peace of Westphalia established secular, state-centric diplomacy; France quickly embodied these principles.

Cardinal Richelieu: Background & Rise

• Full title: Cardinal Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke of Richelieu.
• Became First Minister (chief adviser) to King Louis XIII in 1624.
• Considered the first “modern” statesman for subordinating religion to raison d’état (reason of state).
• Balanced devout Catholic identity with a pragmatic, secular approach to power.

The Politique Tradition

• Originated amid the French Wars of Religion (Catholics vs. Huguenots) beginning in the late 1570s, lasting roughly two decades.
• Core idea: the interests of the state supersede personal or sectarian religious commitments.
• Politique figures—Catholic or Protestant—prioritized national unity and stability over confessional triumph.
• Richelieu exemplified this ethos, proving religion could be “secondary & subservient” to state needs.

Domestic Policies: Amending the Edict of Nantes

• The Edict of Nantes (originally 1598) had guaranteed Huguenot religious and certain political rights.
• Richelieu preserved freedom of worship for Protestants but curtailed their political/military autonomy:
– Stripped right to maintain fortified towns.
– Confiscated weapon stockpiles and banned Protestant nobles from private armies.
• Motivation: prevent internal factions capable of defying the crown, not to advance Catholicism per se.
• Demonstrated politique logic—unity & authority first, doctrine second.

Economic Policies: Mercantilism

• Mercantilism: theory that global wealth is finite; power = securing the largest share of bullion & resources.
• Visual metaphor: global wealth as a fixed “pie”—one nation’s bigger slice shrinks everyone else’s.
• Practical rules:
– Colonies may trade only with the mother country.
– Raw materials flow inward; finished goods flow outward.
• Under Richelieu, France applied mercantilist controls to New France (Canada) and Caribbean holdings, ensuring revenue bolstered royal coffers.
• Marks one of the earliest systematic economic “theories,” paralleling Scientific-Revolution rationality—analyzing nature (resources) to harness power.

Centralization of State Power

• Medieval feudalism had diffused authority downward: lords → vassals.
• Richelieu reversed the flow, concentrating fiscal, military, and legal power in Paris.
• Laid groundwork for absolutism, later epitomized by Louis XIV.
• Methodology:
– Reduced noble independence (e.g., demolition of unlicensed castles).
– Installed royal intendants (bureaucratic agents) in provinces to enforce central policies and collect taxes.
– Asserted monopoly over violence (disarmament of factions).
• Guiding principle: the state is a unified, sovereign entity—not a patchwork of semi-autonomous fiefs.

Foreign Policy in the Thirty Years’ War

• France entered the war in the early 1630s.
• Surprising alignment: supported Protestant forces against the Catholic Habsburgs, despite France’s own Catholic identity.
• Rationale: Habsburg Spain & Austria were France’s principal geopolitical rivals; weakening them advanced French security.
• Richelieu’s famous justification: “We acted for Raison\ d’\État” (reason of state).
• Illustrates secularization of diplomacy: strategic calculus outweighed confessional solidarity.

Significance & Legacy

• Richelieu’s trio—politique ideology, mercantilism, and centralization—constituted a template for modern nation-states.
• Demonstrated that religious identity could be politically instrumental rather than determinative.
• Influenced later European power politics (balance-of-power system) and economic colonial policies (navigation acts, exclusive trade).
• Set the stage for French cultural supremacy (language, arts, court etiquette) in the 17^{th} & 18^{th} centuries.
• Foreshadowed later revolutions (American, French) by spotlighting the tension between centralized authority and local privileges.