unit 4 ap gov
AP U.S. Government – Political Beliefs & Behaviors Study Guide
1. Core American Values
These are the fundamental beliefs that influence how Americans think government and society should function.
Individualism
Definition: The belief that individuals should have the freedom to make their own choices and be responsible for their own success.
Explanation: People should be able to pursue their own goals without unnecessary government interference.
Example: Someone believing that individuals should be responsible for finding employment and building their own careers.
Equality of Opportunity
Definition: Everyone should have an equal chance to succeed, regardless of their background.
Explanation: People should have access to the same opportunities, even though they may not all achieve the same outcomes.
Example: Public education giving children from different economic backgrounds an opportunity to receive an education.
Free Enterprise
Definition: An economic system in which individuals and businesses can privately own property, compete, and make economic decisions with limited government interference.
Explanation: Businesses generally determine what to produce, how much to charge, and how to operate based on supply and demand.
Example: Someone opening a privately owned restaurant and competing with other restaurants.
Rule of Law
Definition: Everyone, including government officials, must follow the law.
Explanation: No individual is above the law, and laws should be applied fairly and consistently.
Example: A president can be investigated or prosecuted for breaking the law.
Limited Government
Definition: The belief that government power should be restricted to prevent it from becoming too powerful.
Explanation: The Constitution establishes boundaries on government authority and protects individual freedoms.
Example: The Bill of Rights limits the government's ability to restrict freedom of speech.
IMPORTANT: Individualism emphasizes personal responsibility, while limited government emphasizes restricting government power. They are related but not identical.
2. Political Socialization Factors
Political socialization is the process through which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, attitudes, and opinions.
It helps explain why people support certain political parties, candidates, and policies.
Family
Definition: Family members influence a person's political beliefs and values.
Explanation: Children often develop political attitudes based on what their parents or relatives believe.
Example: Someone growing up in a household that strongly supports the Democratic Party may initially develop similar political views.
Schools
Definition: Educational institutions influence political knowledge and attitudes.
Explanation: Schools teach students about government, citizenship, history, and political participation.
Example: Learning about the Constitution, voting, and civil rights in AP Government.
Peers
Definition: Friends and people within someone's age group influence their political opinions.
Explanation: People may adopt or reconsider political beliefs based on conversations and shared experiences with friends.
Example: A student becoming interested in environmental policies after discussing climate change with friends.
Media
Definition: Television, newspapers, social media, and other communication platforms influence political opinions.
Explanation: Media provides political information, shapes public discussions, and can influence how people interpret current events.
Example: Seeing news coverage about a presidential candidate influencing someone's opinion of that candidate.
Social Environments & Organizations
Definition: Communities, religious organizations, workplaces, clubs, and other social groups influence political beliefs.
Explanation: People may develop political attitudes based on the values and experiences of the groups they participate in.
Example: A labor union may encourage its members to support candidates who favor stronger worker protections.
3. Globalization
Definition: The increasing interconnectedness of countries through trade, technology, communication, culture, and politics.
Explanation: Events and decisions in one country can influence people and governments around the world.
Political impact: Globalization exposes Americans to international issues, different political systems, and perspectives from other countries.
Example: Social media allows Americans to learn about protests, elections, and political movements happening in other countries.
4. Impact of Events on Socialization
Definition: Major historical events and current events can influence people's political beliefs and attitudes.
Explanation: Personal experiences and national events can change how individuals view government, political parties, and public policies.
Example:
The Great Depression increased support for government involvement in the economy.
The September 11 attacks influenced public attitudes toward national security.
The COVID-19 pandemic influenced opinions about public health policies and government authority.
Key concept: Events can create generational differences because people who experience major events at different ages may develop different political perspectives.
5. Public Opinion
Definition: The collective attitudes and beliefs of the public about political issues, government policies, candidates, and leaders.
Explanation: Public opinion helps politicians understand what citizens support or oppose.
Example: Polls showing that many Americans support increased funding for public education.
Importance: Public opinion can influence elections, political campaigns, and government policymaking.
6. Types of Public Opinion Polls
Public opinion polls measure what people think about political issues or candidates.
Benchmark Poll
Definition: An initial poll conducted early in a political campaign.
Explanation: Establishes a starting point for measuring public support.
Example: A candidate conducts a poll before campaigning to determine how much support they currently have.
Tracking Poll
Definition: A poll conducted repeatedly over time to measure changes in public opinion.
Explanation: Helps campaigns determine whether support for a candidate is increasing or decreasing.
Example: A candidate's polling numbers are measured every few days leading up to an election.
Entrance Poll
Definition: A survey conducted as voters enter a polling location.
Explanation: Helps researchers understand how people intend to vote and what influenced their decisions.
Example: Asking voters which candidate they plan to support before casting their ballots.
Exit Poll
Definition: A survey conducted after voters leave a polling location.
Explanation: Helps researchers understand how different groups voted and why.
Example: Asking voters which presidential candidate they selected after casting their ballots.
AP GOV TIP: Entrance = before voting. Exit = after voting. Tracking = repeated over time. Benchmark = starting point.
7. Sampling Techniques
Definition: Methods researchers use to select a smaller group of people to represent a larger population.
Explanation: Pollsters cannot realistically ask every American about their political opinions, so they survey a sample of people.
Random sampling: Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
Representative sampling: The sample reflects important characteristics of the larger population, such as age, race, geographic location, and political affiliation.
Example: A poll surveying 1,000 randomly selected adults to estimate the opinions of the American public.
Why it matters: A properly selected sample helps researchers make accurate predictions about public opinion.
8. Sampling Error
Definition: The difference between the results of a poll and the actual opinions of the entire population due to surveying only a sample.
Explanation: Since polls do not include everyone, their results are estimates rather than exact measurements.
Example: A poll reports that 52% of voters support a candidate, with a margin of error of ±3 percentage points.
The candidate's actual support could reasonably be between 49% and 55%.
Important: A larger, properly selected sample generally produces a smaller margin of sampling error.
9. Impact of Public Opinion on Policymaking
Definition: Public attitudes and preferences can influence the laws and policies government officials create.
Explanation: Elected officials often consider public opinion because they want to maintain voter support and win reelection.
Examples:
If voters strongly support affordable healthcare, politicians may introduce healthcare legislation.
If citizens oppose increased taxes, representatives may reconsider tax proposals.
Limitations: Public opinion does not always determine policy. Politicians may prioritize their own beliefs, party platforms, interest groups, or constitutional restrictions.
Key concept: In a representative democracy, elected officials are expected to represent the interests and preferences of their constituents.
10. Democratic Party
Generally liberal / center-left
Definition: One of the two major political parties in the United States that generally supports a more active role for government in addressing social and economic issues.
General beliefs:
Supports government programs that help lower-income individuals and families.
Generally supports expanding access to affordable healthcare.
Supports environmental protections and addressing climate change.
Generally supports stronger protections for workers.
Supports civil rights and social equality.
Generally supports progressive taxation (higher tax rates for higher-income earners).
Example: Supporting government-funded healthcare assistance for lower-income families.
11. Republican Party
Generally conservative / center-right
Definition: One of the two major political parties in the United States that generally supports limited government involvement in the economy and traditional social values.
General beliefs:
Supports lower taxes.
Generally favors fewer business regulations.
Emphasizes individual responsibility and personal freedom.
Generally supports stronger national defense.
Often supports traditional social and cultural values.
Generally favors allowing private businesses to operate with less government interference.
Example: Supporting tax cuts for businesses to encourage economic growth.
Remember: These are general party tendencies. Individual Democrats and Republicans can hold different positions, and party platforms change over time.
12. Political Ideologies
A political ideology is a set of beliefs about how government and society should function, including how much government involvement is appropriate.
Liberal
Definition: An ideology that generally supports government involvement to address social and economic inequalities and protect individual rights.
Government's role: Government should actively help solve social and economic problems.
Economic beliefs: Supports regulations, social welfare programs, and progressive taxation.
Social beliefs: Generally supports social change, individual rights, and expanding civil liberties.
Example: Supporting government-funded healthcare programs and stronger environmental regulations.
Conservative
Definition: An ideology that generally supports traditional values, free-market economics, and a more limited role for government.
Government's role: Government should have limited involvement in people's lives and the economy, although conservatives may support government involvement in areas such as national defense and law enforcement.
Economic beliefs: Supports lower taxes, fewer regulations, and private enterprise.
Social beliefs: Often favors preserving traditional institutions and values.
Example: Supporting tax cuts and reducing regulations on businesses.
Libertarian
Definition: An ideology that emphasizes individual freedom and believes government involvement should be minimized in both economic and personal matters.
Government's role: Government should have a very limited role in society.
Economic beliefs: Strongly supports free markets, private property, and minimal economic regulations.
Social beliefs: Supports individual freedom in personal decisions and generally opposes government interference in private behavior.
Example: Supporting lower taxes, fewer business regulations, and personal freedom regarding individual lifestyle choices.
Comparing the three ideologies
Ideology | Economic government involvement | Personal/social government involvement |
|---|---|---|
Liberal | More involvement | Generally less interference in personal freedoms |
Conservative | Less involvement | Often supports traditional social policies |
Libertarian | Very little involvement | Very little involvement |
AP GOV TIP: Libertarians generally want less government involvement in BOTH economic and personal matters. This is what makes them different from conservatives and liberals.
13. Ideology and Economic Policy
These three economic approaches explain how the government should influence the economy.
Free Market Economics
Definition: An economic system in which businesses and consumers make most economic decisions with minimal government interference.
Explanation: Prices, production, and distribution are primarily determined by supply and demand.
Government's role: Limited regulation and interference in the economy.
Example: Businesses independently deciding how much to charge for their products based on consumer demand.
Associated ideology: Generally conservative and libertarian.
Keynesian Economics
Definition: An economic theory that argues the government should intervene in the economy to manage economic fluctuations.
Explanation: When the economy is struggling, the government should increase spending or decrease taxes to encourage economic activity.
Government's role: Actively manages the economy, especially during recessions.
Example: The government funding infrastructure projects to create jobs and stimulate economic growth.
Associated ideology: Generally liberal.
Key idea: When the economy is struggling, government spending can increase demand, encourage businesses to produce more, and create employment.
Supply-Side Economics
Definition: An economic theory that argues reducing taxes and regulations on businesses and individuals can encourage production and economic growth.
Explanation: Lower taxes can give businesses more money to invest, expand operations, and hire employees.
Government's role: Reduce taxes and regulations to encourage economic activity.
Example: The government lowering corporate taxes to encourage businesses to expand.
Associated ideology: Generally conservative.
The three economic theories at a glance
Free Market
Let businesses and consumers make economic decisions through supply and demand.
Keynesian
Increase government spending or decrease taxes to stimulate a struggling economy.
Supply-Side
Reduce taxes and regulations to encourage businesses to produce and invest.
14. Monetary Policy
Definition: Actions taken by the Federal Reserve to influence the economy by controlling interest rates and the money supply.
Explanation: Monetary policy is used to control inflation, encourage economic growth, and influence borrowing and spending.
Who controls it? The Federal Reserve.
Two types:
Expansionary Monetary Policy
Used when the economy is struggling or experiencing a recession.
The Federal Reserve lowers interest rates and takes other actions to increase the money supply.
Borrowing becomes less expensive.
Consumers and businesses are encouraged to spend and invest more.
Example: Lowering interest rates to encourage people to purchase homes and businesses to expand.
Demand (MD / AD)
Supply (MS / SRAS)
Long-run supply (LRAS)
Money market
AD–AS
2468105MoneyInterest rate
2468105Real GDPPrice level
More money lowers the interest rate to 3.9, raises investment, and shifts AD right
Policy type
ExpansionaryContractionary
Policy strength
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Contractionary Monetary Policy
Used when inflation is too high.
The Federal Reserve raises interest rates and takes other actions to reduce the money supply.
Borrowing becomes more expensive.
Consumers and businesses generally spend and borrow less.
Example: Raising interest rates to slow down spending and reduce inflation.
AP GOV TIP: Monetary policy = Federal Reserve = interest rates and money supply.
15. Fiscal Policy
Definition: Government decisions involving taxation and government spending to influence the economy.
Explanation: The federal government adjusts spending and taxes to encourage economic growth or slow down inflation.
Who controls it? Congress and the president through the federal budget and legislation.
Two types:
Expansionary Fiscal Policy
Used during recessions or periods of slow economic growth.
Increases government spending and/or decreases taxes.
Gives consumers and businesses more money to spend.
Encourages economic growth and employment.
Example: Congress approves additional funding for infrastructure projects to create jobs.
Short-run supply (SRAS)
Long-run supply (LRAS)
Demand (AD)
2040608010020406080Real GDPPrice level
Expansionary fiscal policy shifts AD right; the new equilibrium has recessionary gap
Fiscal policy
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Contractionary Fiscal Policy
Used to slow down an economy experiencing high inflation.
Decreases government spending and/or increases taxes.
Reduces overall demand in the economy.
Can help reduce inflation.
Example: Congress increases taxes to reduce consumer spending.
AP GOV TIP: Fiscal policy = Congress and president = government spending and taxes.
16. Federal Reserve
Definition: The central banking system of the United States, responsible for managing monetary policy and helping maintain a stable economy.
Also called: The Fed.
Main responsibilities:
Monetary policy: Influences interest rates and the money supply to promote stable prices and maximum employment.
Bank supervision: Supervises and regulates certain banks to help maintain financial stability.
Financial stability: Works to reduce risks to the U.S. financial system.
Financial services: Helps operate the nation's payment systems and provides certain banking services to the federal government and financial institutions.
Example: The Federal Reserve raises interest rates to help bring down high inflation.
How the Federal Reserve is organized
The Federal Reserve System was established in 1913.
It is led by the Board of Governors, which has seven members.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) makes important decisions about monetary policy.
The Federal Reserve operates independently within the federal government, meaning politicians do not directly control its day-to-day monetary policy decisions.