PYSCH NOTES 4.1
Drive-Reduction Theory - proposed by Clark Hull, suggests that motivation arises from
physiological needs that create an aroused state, or drive, which pushes an organism to
reduce that need and achieve homeostasis. According to this theory, behaviors are
performed to satisfy these needs and restore balance. When you're hungry, the drive for
food motivates you to seek out and consume food, thereby reducing the hunger and
restoring balance.
Arousal Theory - posits that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of
arousal, which varies from person to person. Too little arousal leads to boredom, while
too much arousal leads to stress. Optimal arousal levels differ depending on the
individual and the situation. A person might go skydiving to achieve high arousal levels
or practice meditation to reduce arousal and stress.
Yerkes-Dodson Law - proposes a relationship between arousal levels and performance,
suggesting that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance on tasks.
According to this law, both very high and very low levels of arousal can impair
performance. In sports, athletes need to achieve an optimal level of arousal to perform
well. For example, a tennis player may perform best with moderate arousal during a
match, enabling quick reflexes and
strategic thinking. Too much arousal
(e.g., anxiety) or too little (e.g., lack of
focus) can lead to errors and reduced
performance.
4.6.A.2
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) -
developed by Edward Deci and Richard
Ryan, focuses on intrinsic motivation
and the human need for autonomy,
competence, and relatedness.
According to SDT, when these needs
are met, people are more likely to be
intrinsically motivated and experience well-being. In a workplace setting, employees are
more motivated and productive when they feel they have control over their work
(autonomy), believe they are skilled at their tasks (competence), and feel connected to
their colleagues (relatedness).
Incentive Theory - suggests that behavior is motivated by external rewards or
incentives. Unlike drive-reduction theory, which focuses on internal states, incentive
theory emphasizes the role of external stimuli in motivating behavior.
Intrinsic Motivation - refers to engaging in a behavior because it is inherently
rewarding, rather than for some separable consequence. Activities are pursued for their
own sake and for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation. Studying a
subject out of curiosity and a desire to understand, without concern for grades or
rewards.
Extrinsic Motivation - involves engaging in an activity to earn external rewards or
avoid punishment. These rewards can include praise, money, grades, or social approval.
Participating in sports or contests to win medals or gain recognition.
4.6.A.3
Instinct Theory - proposes that behaviors are driven by innate biological instincts that
are evolutionarily programmed. These instincts are automatic and unlearned responses
to specific stimuli. This theory suggests that certain behaviors, such as mating or
parental care, are hardwired and essential for survival and reproduction. It highlights the
role of inherited traits in motivating behavior.
Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity to earn external rewards or avoid
punishment. These rewards can include praise, money, grades, or social approval.
4.6.A.4
Lewin's Motivational Conflicts - Kurt Lewin identified three types of motivational
conflicts that arise when an individual faces competing goals or needs: approach-
approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance conflicts.
Approach-Approach Conflict - An approach-approach conflict occurs when an
individual must choose between two equally attractive options. Choosing between
two exciting job offers can create an approach-approach conflict.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict - An approach-avoidance conflict arises when a
single choice has both positive and negative aspects. Deciding whether to take a
high-paying job that requires moving to a less desirable location involves
approach-avoidance conflict.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict - An avoidance-avoidance conflict occurs when
an individual must choose between two equally unattractive options. Deciding
between doing a disliked chore or facing the consequences of not doing it
represents an avoidance-avoidance conflict.
4.6.A.5
Sensation Seeking - refers to the tendency to seek out novel and intense experiences.
Individuals with high sensation-seeking traits are motivated by the desire for varied,
complex, and stimulating experiences. Thrill-seekers may participate in extreme sports
like bungee jumping or skydiving to satisfy their need for high arousal and excitement.
Experience Seeking - is a motivational tendency characterized by a desire for
new sensations and experiences, even if they involve risk or uncertainty.
Individuals high in experience seeking are often curious, adventurous, and open to
exploring novel activities or environments.
Thrill or Adventure Seeking - is a motivational trait characterized by a strong
desire for intense and exciting experiences, often involving physical risks or
challenges. Individuals with high thrill-seeking tendencies are motivated by the
adrenaline rush and excitement associated with activities like skydiving, mountain
climbing, or racing.
Disinhibition - refers to a motivational state where individuals seek to escape
from social norms, constraints, or inhibitions. It involves a desire for freedom from
conventional rules and restraints, often leading to impulsive or unrestrained
behavior.
Boredom Susceptibility - refers to the tendency to experience dissatisfaction or
restlessness when not engaged in stimulating activities. Individuals high in
boredom susceptibility may seek constant stimulation and struggle with
maintaining attention during repetitive or monotonous tasks.
Emotion, or affect - is a complex psychological process that is distinguished from
reasoning or knowledge. Emotions reflect internal and external factors affecting an
individual. Early 20th century psychological theories of emotion parsed the distinction
between the physiological and cognitive experiences of emotion. Some theories
proposed that the physiological and cognitive experiences occurred in succession while
others proposed that they occurred simultaneously. Other theories emphasize that the
cognitive label is required to experience an emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis
suggests that the experience of emotion is influenced by facial expressions, which
supports theories that propose the physiological experience of emotion precedes the
cognitive appraisal, and research testing this hypothesis has produced mixed results.
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis - suggests that facial expressions not only reflect
emotional experiences but also influence them. According to this theory, facial muscles
send signals to the brain, which then interprets these signals as emotions. For example,
smiling can induce feelings of happiness, while frowning may lead to feelings of sadness
or displeasure. During stressful situations, consciously adopting a relaxed facial
expression (like smiling softly) can help reduce feelings of anxiety or tension,
demonstrating the influence of facial feedback on emotional regulation.
4.7.A.2
Broaden-and-Build Theory - proposes that positive emotions broaden an individual's
momentary thought-action repertoire, enhancing their ability to cope with stressful
situations and fostering long-term psychological resilience. Unlike negative emotions,
which narrow one's focus to specific actions, positive emotions broaden awareness and
cognition. Engaging in hobbies or activities that bring joy (e.g., playing music, gardening)
not only enhances immediate feelings of happiness but also builds skills and networks
that promote long-term mental health and adaptive coping strategies.
4.7.B.1
Expression of Emotions Theory - posits that emotions are expressed through
universal facial expressions that are recognizable across cultures. Psychologist Paul
Ekman identified six primary emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness,
surprise) and argued that these expressions serve evolutionary purposes, aiding in
survival and social communication. In professional settings, accurately interpreting
colleagues' facial expressions (e.g., detecting frustration during a meeting) enables
effective communication and collaboration, fostering positive workplace relationships
and productivity.
4.7.B.2
Display Rules - refer to cultural norms and social expectations that govern how
emotions are expressed and regulated in different contexts. These rules dictate when,
where, and to what extent individuals can display emotions, influencing how emotions
are managed and communicated in social interactions. In some cultures, displaying
intense emotions like anger or sadness openly in public settings may be discouraged,
promoting emotional restraint and composure in social settings. Conversely, in other
cultures, expressing emotions openly may be seen as authentic and valued, fostering
emotional intimacy and communication.