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Khruschev, brezhnev and gorbachev
Khrushchev and Brezhnev Era (1953-1964) Domestic policies and Foreign relations
Khrushchev Era (1953 - 1964)
Domestic Policies
De-Stalinization
Marked a departure from Stalin's oppressive regime, initiating more liberal governance.
Reduced reliance on terror, released thousands of political prisoners, and began dismantling the notorious Gulag camp system.
Sought to reform the party bureaucracy, reducing the power of Stalinist-era officials.
Release of thousands of prisoners from labour camps added to the strong reaction against Stalin and Stalinism
Statues and portraits of former dictator were pulled down and towns and cities named in his honour given new titles
Anti religious campaign
Targeted orthodox church and other religious institutions
Churches and monasteries faced persecution, resulting in a significant reduction in their numbers
Many churches converted into museums and community centres
Authority and influence of priests were limited, and protests were met with arrests and imprisonment
There were rape of nuns, beating of novices and dispersion of monks
Children separated from their families to prevent religious influence
Atheism was introduced as a subject in school curriculum and individuals with religious beliefs faced obstacles in further education and government employment
Economic Reforms
Agricultural
Khrushchev introduced the Virgin Lands Scheme prior to assuming leadership of the Soviet Union in 1958.
Under his leadership, the country's agriculture experienced a period of improvement.
Khrushchev merged collective farms (kolkhozes) into state farms (sovkhozes), providing workers on sovkhozes with guaranteed fixed wages and social benefits, including the prospect of a pension.
Rural workers' living standards improved significantly as sovkhoz produced flooded industrial towns and cities, and private plot owners were no longer required to make compulsory deliveries to the state.
Khrushchev decentralised the Soviet agricultural system by granting greater autonomy to local Party administrators and allowing sovkhozes to purchase their own agricultural machinery, reducing dependence on the Motor Transport Stations.
Failures in agricultural
The pricing system implemented during Khrushchev's time was an improvement compared to Stalin's era but still had limitations.
The state set prices in an arbitrary manner, often offering farmers prices lower than the production costs, particularly for eggs, milk, and meat.
Shortages led the government to abruptly increase prices for meat and dairy products in 1962.
The price increase triggered protests in Novocherkassk, which escalated when rioters broke into the city soviet headquarters.
Troops were deployed and fired on the protesters, resulting in the deaths of twenty-four individuals. A news blackout prevented the public from learning about the incident for thirty years.
Private plots accounted for only 3% of the cultivated area but produced over 30% of the USSR's agricultural output, providing significant income for peasants.
However, there was still little incentive for collective farm workers to exert effort on the communal fields, and those who demonstrated initiative often left the collectives.
Ill-conceived government initiatives, such as Khrushchev's emphasis on growing maize in unsuitable land and climate, led to predictable failures.
The closure of Motor Transport Stations (MTS) aimed to increase the independence of collective farms but had unintended consequences.
Farms lacked the necessary infrastructure, such as barns, for equipment storage, and there was a lack of expertise to maintain the machinery.
Mechanics from the former MTS often returned to the industry where living standards and amenities were better, resulting in farm machinery deteriorating in the fields due to a lack of spare parts.
The central government struggled to plan agriculture effectively in the long term and resisted granting economic independence to farmers or transitioning to market-based trading.
Subsidising socialised agriculture perpetuated inefficiencies in the system, as described by J. Keep in "Last of the Empires" (1995).
Industry
In the industrial sector, Khrushchev continued decentralisation by abolishing Moscow-based ministries and replacing them with sovnarkhozy, which were largely independent and responsible for regulating industrial activity within specific areas.
There were 105 sovnarkhozy covering different administrative divisions of the country, and a national sovnarkhozy was established in 1962 to replace Gosplan and manage the Soviet economy.
Local sovnarkhozy allowed Party leaders to have a greater say in the management of Soviet industry.
Khrushchev aimed to credit the Party with the improved living standards of the Russian people.
The Sixth Five-Year Plan introduced in 1956 was abandoned in favour of a Seven-Year Plan (1959-1965), which aimed to expand the production of chemicals, fertilisers, man-made fibres, plastics, oil, natural gas, and consumer goods.
Failures in Industry
The economic system implemented during Khrushchev's time saw limited changes and followed a centralised approach with set targets.
Productivity was generally low, and the quality of goods was poor.
Khrushchev attempted reforms by establishing 105 regional economic councils to replace national ministries, aiming to improve coordination and reduce waste and bureaucracy.
However, this resulted in the creation of additional bureaucratic layers without significant improvements.
Despite regional councils, central planning in Moscow remained essential in a command economy, and a new Supreme Economic Council was established to coordinate the entire apparatus.
After Khrushchev's removal, much of the new structure was dismantled.
The standard of living did improve during this period.
A minimum wage was introduced in 1956, with most workers earning more than the minimum.
Average household income increased by over 3% per year from 1960 to 1965.
The urban Russian diet improved, becoming less reliant on bread and potatoes.
Some items, such as clothes and footwear, were expensive, but others, like books and public transport, were cheaper compared to the West.
By 1968, 50% of Soviet households had a television and a washing machine, but few had cars, and only 10% had a telephone.
Pensions and other benefits also increased.
The construction of housing expanded, allowing young married couples to have their own places instead of living in overcrowded parental apartments.
However, the emphasis was on quantity rather than quality, and many new apartments lacked amenities like running water and elevators.
The landscape of Russian cities is still marked by regimented, prefabricated blocks today, although the communal flats of Stalin's era with shared facilities were abandoned.
Heating in these new apartments was provided for free.
Cultural "Thaw"
Relaxed censorship, leading to a flourishing of arts and literature, with previously banned works becoming accessible.
Promoted science and education, resulting in significant advances in space technology, exemplified by the Sputnik and manned space flights.
However, this liberalisation led to increased demands for further freedoms, contributing to social unrest.
Allowed greater personal freedom, including the ability to express feelings and read foreign literature
Western literature by authors like Graham Greene and Ernest Hemingway became available in Russian bookshops
However limits to free of expression, dissident writers who criticised the Soviet system were arrested and imprisoned
Russian citizens were allowed to travel abroad and western culture was also influenced
Foreign Relations
Coexistence and Competition with the West
Advocated for peaceful coexistence, reducing the immediacy of nuclear confrontation.
The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was a significant event, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war but ultimately leading to a greater emphasis on diplomatic solutions.
Relations with China
The Sino-Soviet split, aggravated by ideological differences and territorial disputes, marked a significant realignment in global communist movements.
Criticisms of the great leap forward by secret speech by Khrushchev
Influence in Eastern Europe
Forcefully suppressed the 1956 Hungarian Uprising, demonstrating the USSR's commitment to maintaining control over Eastern Europe.
Despite attempts at reform, faced continuous challenges in managing the Eastern Bloc countries.
Why was Khrushchev forced to retire in 1964
Khrushchev was forced to retire in 1964 due to a combination of economic challenges, foreign policy missteps, and his own behaviour and leadership style.
The economy experienced a slowdown in the early 1960s after a period of growth until 1960.
Poor harvests occurred due to bad weather and the failure of the Virgin Lands project, which led to soil erosion in areas that had been planted.
Khrushchev's decision to replace wheat with maize in parts of western Russia proved unsuitable for the conditions.
Industrial growth was hampered by the high costs of defence and the failure to modernise production methods.
Khrushchev's foreign policy, particularly his actions during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, was seen as reckless and flawed.
He placed nuclear weapons in Cuba but ultimately had to back down and withdraw them under pressure from the United States.
Khrushchev's crude behaviour, such as banging his shoe during a UN meeting in 1960, embarrassed his colleagues.
His attempts to reform the bureaucracy threatened the job security of Communist party officials, leading to their discontent.
Khrushchev's autocratic leadership style, characterised by making decisions without proper consultation, further alienated his colleagues.
Brezhnev Era (1964-1982)
Domestic Policies
Economic Stagnation
The era was characterised by economic stagnation, with growth rates declining and bureaucracy becoming increasingly cumbersome.
Heavy industry continued to be prioritised at the expense of consumer goods, leading to widespread shortages and declining living standards.
Large-scale projects, like the Baikal-Amur Mainline railway, were emblematic of the era's focus on grandiose but inefficient industrial projects.
Political stagnation
A return to more conservative, authoritarian governance, reversing some of Khrushchev's liberal policies.
The KGB regained its earlier prominence, and political dissent was less tolerated.
Strengthened the Soviet Union's commitment to Marxist-Leninist ideology, resisting reforms and maintaining strict party control.
The party membership continued to increase under Khrushchev and continued to do so under Brezhnev, from 14.4 million in 1971 to 17.4 million in 1981, this made the part more diverse in background and outlook and therefore more difficult for the leadership to discipline
1977 constitution, the first since Stalin’s 1936 Constitution, without introducing changes of any great substance, reaffirmed the centrality of the Communist Party
The growth of dissent
Dissent in the Soviet Union was largely limited to the urban intelligentsia and involved relatively small numbers of people.
Dissenting and dissident voices became more prominent as the era of terror receded, but their impact was greater abroad than domestically, and they were often contained through police methods.
Under Brezhnev, there was some relaxation of repression in the area of religion, with the abandonment of Khrushchev's attack on religious groups. However, strict controls on religious practice remained, and certain religious groups remained banned.
From 1965-66, the Soviet leadership adopted a tougher stance against dissident intellectuals. Examples were made of writers Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel, who were sentenced to hard labor for publishing works critical of the Communist Party abroad.
Prominent intellectuals such as Iosif Brodsky, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, and Andrei Sakharov faced exile or internal exile during the Brezhnev era.
Dissidents were also regularly committed to psychiatric hospitals as a means of silencing them.
Dissent continued to grow during the Brezhnev era, with two prominent strands: human rights activists/critics of authoritarian control and growing nationalist unrest.
Samizdat, self-published works reproduced through carbon copies, and magnitizdat, magnetic tape publishing, were used to distribute illegal literature and music.
The Chronicle of Current Events was established in 1968 to monitor and record human rights violations.
Andrei Sakharov played a key role among dissidents and helped establish the Human Rights Committee in 1970.
Growing nationalist unrest posed a potential threat to the USSR, particularly in the Baltic republics and among Muslims in the southern republics.
Gerontocracy
Brezhenve tended to leave officials in post until they retired or died
The party bureaucracy aged as the 1970s progressed
1958-61 average age of Politburo members increased from 55 to 68
Remarkable continuity in the central committee’s personnel with only 44% of its membership changing in the same period
Official corruption
Saw the 750,000 or so part and state officials and managers, enjoyed their greatest security and privileges, privileges that Brezhnev very much appreciated. He was very proud of his collection of luxury lIMOUSINES
Corruption among officials already widespread, became even more prominent under Brezhnev
Many official put defence of their privileged positions as their top priority
Ideological fervour was increasingly rare as were initiative and energy, the whole bureaucratic system ossified and stagnated
Growing cynicism about communist rule
More corrosive of communist party authority than outright dissent, was a growing cynicism about the soviet system
Few soviet citizens, by the 1970s and 1980s, were ideologically committed to Marxism-Leninism. Most were cynical about the growing corruption and stagnation of the communist party rule
What economic success did Brezhnev have?
Agricultural output rose by 21% in 1966-70, largely as a result of increasing government investment and the encouragement of private plots. Brezhnev took this further in 1977 and 1981, introducing measures to allow the maximum size of private plots to increase to half a hectare each.
Soviet oil production rose by 50% in the period 1972-80. In the process, the USSR became the world's largest oil producer.
The Baikal-Amur Railway (BAM), 3000 km long, was constructed, linking eastern Siberia and the Pacific. • Living standards did improve in certain respects. By 1980, most Soviet families possessed a refrigerator (86%) and a TV (74%). The minimum monthly wage was increased; minimum statutory holiday provision was introduced. Welfare benefits were extended to rural workers who had previously been denied them. Wage differentials between rural and urban workers also narrowed, so that by the 1970s, rural workers, on average, earned 90% of their urban counterparts' wages.
Prices of basic commodities such as bread, potatoes, and, clothing, and rents for apartments, were kept low by the state.
What economic failures occurred under Brezhnev?
Industrial output continued to rise but at an increasingly slow rate. GNP had risen by an average 5% p.a. in 1960-65; this fell to 4% p.a. in 1970-78 and 2% p.a. in 1979-82.
The gap between the USSR and the West in terms of technology widened alarmingly from a Soviet perspective. The USSR was being increasingly left behind in the computer age.
Agricultural output rose by just 6% in the period 1981-85, and that was in spite of increased government investment (in 1976-80, the USSR allocated 27% of its investment to agriculture, whereas the USA earmarked a mere 4%). The USSR was increasingly dependent on grain imports, particularly from the USA and other western countries.
Foreign Relations
Cold War Intensification
The arms race with the United States intensified, with a significant focus on achieving nuclear parity.
Involvement in global conflicts, notably the invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, led to international condemnation and a costly, protracted military engagement.
Eastern Bloc Control
The Brezhnev Doctrine justified Soviet intervention in Eastern Bloc countries to maintain communist rule, most notably in Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring of 1968.
This policy reinforced Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe but also fuelled resentment and resistance among satellite states.
Detente with the West
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II) with the United States marked a temporary easing of tensions and a mutual agreement to limit nuclear arms.
Despite these diplomatic efforts, Brezhnev maintained a firm stance on supporting global communist movements and opposing Western influence.
Impact and Significance
Khrushchev's Legacy
His policies of de-Stalinization and cultural thaw marked a significant, though temporary, liberalisation of Soviet society and politics.
Foreign policy under Khrushchev was a mix of aggressive confrontation, as seen in the Cuban Missile Crisis, and attempts at peaceful coexistence, which laid the groundwork for later détente.
Brezhnev's Impact
His tenure is marked by the consolidation of Soviet power but at the cost of severe economic and social stagnation.
Foreign policy decisions during this period, particularly the invasion of Afghanistan, had far-reaching implications, contributing to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Transformation of the soviet union under Gorbachev
Gorbachev's Aims and Ideology
Upon ascending to power, Mikhail Gorbachev faced a daunting task: to address the systemic issues plaguing the Soviet Union. His approach was grounded in reforming rather than dismantling the Soviet system.
Economic Revitalisation
Gorbachev aimed to revitalise the stagnant Soviet economy through market-like reforms, seeking to increase efficiency and productivity while maintaining socialist principles.
Political Liberalisation
Recognising the need for political change, Gorbachev sought to democratise the Soviet system, moving away from the authoritarian legacy of his predecessors.
Key Policies Under Gorbachev
Perestroika and Glasnost
Economy in Decline: When Gorbachev assumed leadership in the Soviet Union, the economy was in a state of decline. From 1980 to 1985, there was a negative growth rate, marking the first instance of peacetime contraction under communism. Seeking to reverse this trend, the Five Year Plan of 1986-1990 set ambitious goals of achieving 25% growth in industrial production and improving living standards.
Industrial Restructuring: Gorbachev believed in the Soviet system but recognized the need for comprehensive restructuring, which he termed "perestroika." The aim was to liberate enterprises from centralised planning and control, allowing them to engage in negotiations with suppliers and customers while having greater control over their budgets. Additionally, Gorbachev sought to encourage employees to actively participate in the management of their workplaces.
Over-manning and Labor Shortages: The Soviet party leadership acknowledged the issue of over-manning in some enterprises while also facing labour shortages in others. This imbalance highlighted the need for rationalising the labour force and optimising productivity.
Chernobyl Disaster: In 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster in Ukraine had a profound impact on Gorbachev's government. The government initially withheld information about the disaster and disseminated misinformation, causing significant public distrust. This event reinforced Gorbachev's belief that radical reform was necessary and that the party and government needed to be more open to criticism.
Glasnost: In response to the Chernobyl disaster and the growing need for openness and transparency, Gorbachev introduced the concept of "glasnost." He emphasised the importance of free expression and open dialogue, stating that glasnost was as vital as air. Censorship was loosened, leading to greater freedom of expression in magazines, newspapers, and public discourse. This marked a period of more extensive discussion and debate than had been seen since 1917.
Return to Real Lenin: Gorbachev openly spoke about the need to return to the principles of Lenin, which he believed had been lost since the late 1920s. This sentiment was part of his broader vision for reforming the Soviet Union and addressing the excesses and failures of the Stalinist era.
Literary Criticism: As part of the wave of glasnost, novels critical of the Stalinist period began to emerge. One of the most notable examples was "Children of the Arbat" by A. Rybakov, which denounced the Stalinist regime and shed light on the consequences of its policies.
Economic Perestroika
Gorbachev's Trust in Administrative Structures: Initially, Gorbachev placed his trust in creating new administrative structures to address the economic problems of the USSR. The Politburo approved the establishment of a large new ministry to organise agriculture and food processing. However, this approach did not yield positive results, as industrial production started to decline in the first months of 1987.
Undermining Monolithic Economic Structures: A series of decisions were made that undermined the monolithic economic structures of the USSR. The Central Committee passed the Decree on State Enterprises, which mandated that all managers in industries should be elected. Managers were also granted greater freedom in making management decisions, such as negotiating contracts and setting wages. Party committees that shadowed the work of ministries were to be merged. Additionally, freedom of the press and freedom of speech were guaranteed as part of these reforms.
Resistance to Reforms: Most party officials and managers were resistant to these decisions, as they challenged the existing power structures and threatened their authority. The introduction of greater autonomy for managers and the push for transparency and public participation were met with scepticism and apprehension.
Economic Challenges: Gorbachev had promised the people higher living standards, but in 1987, industrial production declined by 6%. The defence budget continued to consume a significant portion of government spending (40%). The government also faced a rising deficit, which increased from 37 billion to 57 billion roubles. Factors such as the drop in world oil and gas prices, which accounted for a substantial portion of the USSR's exports, further contributed to the economic challenges.
Rising Inflation and Prejudices Against Private Profit: The reforms and economic difficulties led to rising inflation, reaching almost 10% by 1989. While the government aimed to cushion the impact of perestroika on those affected, prejudices against private profit hindered the smooth transition to a more market-oriented economy. Private producers faced challenges, including the seizure of goods by local party authorities.
Diverging Reform Plans: In 1989, a government commission was established to recommend a way forward. The proposals ranged from a move towards a full market economy, involving privatisation, opening a stock exchange, leasing land to farmers, and removing price controls, to slower and more gradual reforms suggested by Prime Minister Ryzhkov. Delays occurred as a second commission presented another report.
Rejection of Reforms and Welfare Cuts: The Supreme Soviet, in 1990, received a new set of reforms that recommended a 50% increase in most prices. However, fearing public backlash, the Supreme Soviet postponed the price rises, leading to continued high subsidies from the state. The government's plan to address the mounting deficit by cutting welfare benefits and social spending was also rejected without proposing an alternative solution.
Public Unrest and Strikes: The economic situation worsened, leading to longer queues and public discontent. Independent cooperatives, legalised in 1988, were seen as profiting at the expense of the public. Legal strikes occurred across the country, including a national coal miners' strike in 1989, which was only resolved when the Prime Minister agreed to wage increases.
Yavlinsky Report and Ministerial Rejection: The Yavlinsky Report in February 1990 proposed a crash program to address economic issues within 400 days. Although accepted by Gorbachev, his ministers rejected the report. Meanwhile, public discontent grew, and the economic challenges remained unresolved.
Political Perestroika ‘Democratisation’
Party Officials as Obstacles: Gorbachev recognized that party officials were hindering the government's economic goals, leading him to realise the interdependence of economic and political reforms.
Removal of Party Privileges: Gorbachev took steps to remove privileges enjoyed by the party nomenklatura, such as Volga cars and special shops for party officials. This move was met with resistance from the conservative wing of the party.
Publication of the Andreeva Letter: While Gorbachev was away from Moscow in March 1988, the conservative wing published a letter from a lecturer, Andreeva, criticising Gorbachev's reforms and praising Stalin's government. This created uncertainty about the future of reform and Gorbachev's political position.
Extraordinary Party Conference: Reformers called for an extraordinary conference of the Communist Party to further democratise both the party and society. This conference approved groundbreaking decisions, including free elections in the party, secret ballots, and an independent judiciary.
Elections for the Congress of People's Deputies: In March 1989, elections were held throughout the USSR for the Congress of People's Deputies. For the first time, real elections with multiple candidates were conducted. Boris Yeltsin, despite being disgraced and sacked as party boss of Moscow, received substantial support in the elections.
Supreme Soviet and Gorbachev's Role: The Congress of People's Deputies elected a Supreme Soviet, which was intended to act as a check on the government. Boris Yeltsin and Gorbachev were elected to the Supreme Soviet, with Gorbachev becoming the Chairman. The proceedings of the Congress were televised, allowing the public to witness criticism and questioning of leaders.
Emergence of Political Groups: The changed political atmosphere led to the formation of new political groups. The Inter-Regional Group pressed for an acceleration of perestroika, while the Soyuz (Union) Group advocated for a halt to further reforms, at least temporarily.
Formation of New Political Groups: The Democratic Union, established in May 1988, was the first of the new political groups. Its leader faced multiple arrests but was released each time due to hunger strikes.
Repeal of Party Monopoly and Gorbachev's Powers: In February 1990, Gorbachev repealed the article in the Soviet constitution that prohibited parties other than the Communist Party. He was elected as the President of the USSR by the Congress of Deputies, granting him sweeping powers to dismiss ministers, issue decrees, and command the armed forces.
Chernobyl
Nuclear accident 16 April 1986 at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine
Gorbachev announced “we need Glasnost like we need air!”
Democratisation Efforts
Introduction of Competitive Elections: Gorbachev introduced competitive elections to the Soviet Union, a radical departure from the single-party system.
Impact: This move, though progressive, contributed to the destabilisation of the Communist Party's control and increased political fragmentation.
Foreign Policy Shifts:
End of the Cold War:
Gorbachev's foreign policy was instrumental in de-escalating the Cold War. He engaged in disarmament talks and built relationships with Western leaders.
Reduction in Nuclear Arms:
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 marked a significant step in nuclear disarmament.
Withdrawal from Afghanistan:
Gorbachev's decision to withdraw Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1989 ended a long and costly conflict.
Political Developments and Changes
The Rise of Nationalism and Independence Movements
Baltic States and Beyond:
Glasnost and perestroika inadvertently fuelled nationalist movements in the Baltic States and other Soviet republics, leading to demands for independence.
Challenges to Soviet Authority
These movements directly challenged the Soviet Union's centralised control and were a key factor in its eventual dissolution.
Economic Challenges
Shortages and Inflation: The economic reforms led to unintended consequences such as shortages, inflation, and a decline in living standards, further eroding public support for the government.
The August Coup and its Aftermath
The August 1991 coup attempt by hardline Communists against Gorbachev underscored the deep divisions within the Soviet government and Communist Party.
Assessment of Gorbachev's Legacy
Successes
Gorbachev's policies, particularly glasnost, introduced an unprecedented level of political freedom and discourse in the Soviet Union.
His foreign policy initiatives significantly reduced global tensions and contributed to the end of the Cold War.
Failures
Economic reforms under perestroika were largely unsuccessful, exacerbating the economic crisis.
Gorbachev's reforms, while well-intentioned, hastened the weakening of the Soviet state and its eventual collapse.
Mixed Legacy
Gorbachev remains a controversial figure; he is credited with introducing significant reforms but also bears responsibility for the unintended consequences that led to the Soviet Union's dissolution.
Factors Leading to the Collapse of the Soviet Union
Economic Stagnation and Reform Efforts
By the 1980s, the Soviet Union's economy was marked by significant stagnation, inefficiencies, and a lack of technological advancement, contributing to its decline.
The introduction of economic reforms, notably perestroika (restructuring), under Mikhail Gorbachev aimed to revitalise the economy through decentralisation and introducing market-like reforms in the planned economy. However, these reforms were met with mixed results and often exacerbated existing economic problems.
Political Instability and Glasnost
Glasnost (openness) allowed for increased transparency and freedom of expression, leading to a rise in public dissent and criticism of the government.
The policy inadvertently exposed the systemic weaknesses and corruption within the Communist Party, eroding public trust and destabilising the political landscape.
Nationalist Movements and Republic Independence Claims
The loosening of central control sparked a rise in nationalist movements within various Soviet republics. This movement was particularly strong in the Baltic states, as well as in Georgia, Ukraine, and Armenia.
These republics started declaring sovereignty and independence, further weakening the Soviet Union's integrity.
International Pressures
The costly arms race with the United States, especially under the Reagan administration's Strategic Defense Initiative, placed a significant strain on the Soviet economy.
The protracted and draining involvement in Afghanistan (1979-1989) further depleted Soviet resources and morale, drawing parallels with the United States' experience in Vietnam.
The 1991 Coup Attempt
The August 1991 coup attempt by hardline members of the Communist Party sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and restore the old order.
The coup's failure significantly undermined the government's authority and accelerated the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
Republics were reluctant to talk to Gorbachev about a new USSR constitution
18th august 1991, Gorbachev while on holiday on black sea coast was placed under house arrest to sign declaration of state of emergency, when he refused he was removed as Head of State
Political atmosphere had changed so the coup was met with opposition. Specifically by Yeltsin
The Collapse of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union was formalised on December 26, 1991, leading to the emergence of 15 independent republics, with Russia being the largest.
Boris Yeltsin, who played a prominent role during the coup, emerged as the leader of the Russian Federation.
Although people protested against the coup and supported democracy, Gorby’s authority was now undermined
The Baltic states broke away from the USSR. On 1st January 1992, the USSR ceased to exist and Gorbachev does not have any power
Continuing problems
However in the first months of 1987, industrial production began to decline. More radical change needed!
Most managers and party officials did not welcome these decisions. Think why?
Defence still accounted for 40% of government spending.
Industrial production continued to fall.
Gorby’s campaign against alcohol cut off an important source of revenue.
Drop in world oil and gas prices damaged profits from over 50% of USSRs exports.
Government subsidies and benefits caused high inflation.
This lead to bread ques and strikes as miners went on strike demanding higher wages and an urgent program of reform in 1990 ‘The Yavilinsky report’ was accepted by Gorbachev but rejected by his ministers
Withdrawal from Afghanistan and 1989 collapse of the Iron curtain
Not sending red guards to satellite states in times of uprising
Berlin wall falls in November 1989
USSR: Nationalists
First major signs of tension in Kazakhstan, 1986
The Estonian government declared ownership of USSR property in Estonia followed by Latvia, Lithuania.
March 1990 Lithuania declared itself fully independent
1991 Gorbachev sent troops into the Baltic republics demanding resignation of the Lithuanian government.
Aims of nationalities
Perestroika, glasnost and Democratisation implied self-government
However, Gorbachev had not been aware of the strong nationalist feelings which will tear the republic apart