Imperialism and the Spanish-American War
Imperialism: Overview and Aims
The United States observes other nations building empires and decides to join the action.
Primary motivations:
Land and resources as the American frontier closes at the turn of the 20th century.
Desire for overseas markets to fuel economic growth.
Strategic needs: build a steel navy and secure naval bases and routes (e.g., a canal across Central America).
Core goals of imperialism (as listed in the slides):
1) Open Latin American markets ()
2) Build a steel navy
3) Build a canal through the Central American isthmus
4) Open Asian markets ()Slogan/idea echoed: “A thing well begun is half done.”
Implication: national expansion and global presence as a measure of national strength.
Hawaii: Annexation and Controversy
Hawaii was unofficially “annexed” due to proximity to the US and strategic value.
Basis for interest:
Missionaries, whalers, and business interests shaped American perception of Hawaii as a possession.
Pearl Harbor and naval rights reinforced strategic value.
Key events:
A reciprocal agreement with Hawaii solidified naval access and privileges.
Important players: native Hawaiian rulers (Liliuokalani) and American-backed elites who favored annexation.
Hawaii: Political Tensions and Annexation Debate
The island chain faced legal/sovereign complexities: technically a foreign country under US consideration.
The McKinley Tariff affected sugar growers in Hawaii, complicating relations.
Queen Liliuokalani resisted native Hawaiian rule and tried to maintain sovereignty.
A powerful white revolt in Hawaii sought annexation by the US.
U.S. President Grover Cleveland opposed immediate annexation, withdrawing the treaty and sparking a national debate on imperialism and American rights.
The Open Door and Asia: China Policy and Boxer Rebellion
Open Door aims sought to protect American commercial interests in China as European powers and Japan carved spheres of influence.
John Hay’s Open Door policy called for respect for Chinese rights and free commerce in areas of influence.
Boxer Rebellion (c. 1899–1901): Ultrapatriotic Chinese groups (Boxers) attacked foreigners and missionaries; multinational force (Japan, Germany, France, Russia, Britain, America) intervened to quell the uprising.
Outcome: indemnities and treaties; U.S. involvement reinforced but kept China territorially intact through Hay’s policy.
The Spanish-American War: Catalysts, War Aims, and Media Influence
Causes and pre-war context:
Cuban uprising (1895) against Spanish rule; American economic interests in Cuba (sugar) affected by tariffs.
Spaniards used brutal suppression including concentration camps under General Valeriano Weyler (the “Butcher”).
Yellow journalism/Sensationalism (newspaper wars) helped push public opinion toward war.
Key media figures:
William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer promoted sensational coverage; Hearst’s line: “You furnish the pictures, and I’ll furnish the war.”
The Maine incident (1898):
USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor; 260 sailors died; sources heavily debated the cause (Spanish mine vs. internal explosion).
Pre-war events:
The explosion fed public outrage and accelerated war sentiment.
De Lôme letter (Enrique Dupuy de Lôme) criticized McKinley and fueled public pressure.
War declaration and major battles:
April 11, 1898: McKinley’s war message to Congress
Teller Amendment passed prior to war: Cuba would be granted independence once free from Spain.
The war is often called TR’s Splendid Little War for its brevity and relatively limited costs in human life.
The military dimension:
Theodore Roosevelt serves as Assistant Secretary of the Navy and mobilizes naval forces; his later actions involve rapid deployments (Dewey to Manila).
The campaign featured notable actions by Admiral George Dewey in the Philippines and the Rough Riders in Cuba.
The Philippines and the War in the Archipelago
Dewey’s victory at Manila Bay (May 1898):
Ships destroyed 10 Spanish warships; modern US Navy dominance against older Spanish vessels.
Ground troops secured Manila by August 13, 1898; Filipino insurgents under Emilio Aguinaldo aided the effort.
Insurgency and governance:
Aguinaldo and Filipino rebels continued resistance after initial victory; guerilla warfare persisted for years.
The US faced the challenge of governing newly acquired territories and managing a native insurgency.
Territorial and administrative outcomes:
The Philippines became a U.S. possession; governance involved military and civilian commissions (e.g., Taft’s Philippine Commission).
Taft’s policies focused on roads, sanitation, education, and public health; he emphasized assimilation efforts in the islands.
The Philippines remained under U.S. control with eventual independence anticipated after a lengthy struggle (independence realized in 1946).
Notable leadership: Aguinaldo; later shifts in power and resistance shaped U.S. governance in the archipelago.
The War in the Caribbean: Puerto Rico and Cuba
Puerto Rico’s status:
General Nelson Miles led the island’s conquest; it became a U.S. territory via treaty after the war.
Foraker Act (1900) established civil government in Puerto Rico.
Jones Act (1917) granted islanders U.S. citizenship.
Cuba’s post-war status:
Armistice signed on August 12, 1898.
Treaty negotiations in Paris (late 1898) led to U.S. gains: Guam and Puerto Rico acquired; Cuba granted formal independence with the Platt Amendment constraints.
Platt Amendment (Cuba):
Cuba could not incur excessive debt; the U.S. could intervene to maintain independence and sovereignty; establishment/maintenance of Guantanamo Bay as a U.S. naval base (28{,}000 acres) with bilateral consent.
28{,}000 acres for Guantanamo Bay is a notable land allocation tied to security and U.S. interests.
Post-war lease and treaties:
Treaty of Paris 1898 formalized territorial changes; some terms remained politically sensitive and shaped U.S.–Cuba relations for decades.
Sanitation, Disease, and Medical Lessons of the War
Disease burden:
Diseases such as typhoid, malaria, dysentery, and yellow fever caused far more casualties than direct combat.
Approximate figures: 25{,}000 ext{ sick} and about 5{,}000 ext{ died} from disease; approximately 400 died in battle.
Public health advances:
Dr. Walter Reed investigated diseases and linked yellow fever to the carrier mosquito; this work laid the groundwork for better tropical medicine and disease control (though the slide notes his death in 1902 from an insect-related issue).
Health infrastructure impact:
Large-scale medical efforts and improvements in sanitation and tropical medicine influenced U.S. military operations and colonial governance.
The Aftermath: Governance of New Territories and Constitutional Questions
Insular Cases (Supreme Court):
Question: Does the Constitution follow the flag into new territories?
Ruling: The Constitution does not necessarily apply in full to people in new territories; new subjects could be governed by laws without enjoying all constitutional rights.
Freeing Cuba and the Platt Amendment:
The U.S. freed Cuba in 1902 but required a constitutional framework (Platt Amendment) to facilitate intervention and security guarantees.
Long-term territorial arrangements:
The U.S. retained Guantanamo Bay as a naval base; the 1934 treaty (reaffirmed in 1963) restricted termination except by mutual agreement or U.S. abandonment.
The Foraker Act (1900) and Jones Act (1917) highlighted evolving governance in Caribbean territories and ongoing debates about citizenship and rights for island populations.
Open Door Policy: China and Global Trade Dynamics
The Open Door concept aimed to protect American economic interests in China as European powers and Japan controlled trade and influence.
John Hay’s Open Door Note urged respect for Chinese rights and equal access to markets in spheres of influence.
Consequences:
The policy preserved Chinese territorial integrity and sought to prevent colonization of the country by foreign powers.
The Open Door Note helped shape U.S. engagement in Asia and laid groundwork for later interactions in the Pacific.
The Boxer Rebellion: Multinational Response and Indemnities
Rebellion and international coalition:
Boxers attacked Foreigners and Chinese Christians; 200 missionaries and traders were killed; diplomats besieged.
A multinational force (including Japan, Germany, France, Russia, Britain, and the United States) intervened.
Indemnity and outcomes:
A $333,000,000 indemnity was assessed to China; America’s share was 24{,}500{,}000.
The United States returned 18{,}000{,}000 of its share to China to support education and development in the country.
Policy impact:
U.S. policy under Hay emphasized keeping China territorially intact while expanding American influence and ensuring access to Chinese markets.
Long-Range Effects and Global Positioning
War duration and casualties:
The Spanish-American War lasted 113 ext{ days} with relatively low combat casualties, but significant disease-related losses.
Perceptions and power dynamics:
The United States emerged as a new world power—Britain welcomed the shift, while Germany and other nations viewed it with envy.
Latin American skepticism about Yankee expansion increased as the U.S. asserted greater influence in the Western Hemisphere.
The Open Door opened broader opportunities in Asia and reinforced the U.S. stance on free trade and international competition.
Notable Figures and Media Influences
Theodore Roosevelt (TR):
Assistant Secretary of the Navy at the outset of the war; orchestrated Dewey’s assignment to Manila during the conflict; later a central figure in imperial and domestic policy.
Admiral George Dewey:
Head of the squadron that secured Manila Bay, achieving a decisive naval victory against Spain.
The press as a force multiplier:
Yellow journalism increased public support for war; sensational coverage helped push political leaders toward conflict.
Other key actors:
Queen Liliuokalani (Hawaii) and debates over annexation; Emilio Aguinaldo (Philippines) and subsequent insurgency; General Weyler (Spain) and brutal suppression in Cuba; Elihu Root (Secretary of War) who reformed the military through a more organized structure and the creation of a War College.
Long-Term Reflections: Ethics, Strategy, and Practical Implications
Ethical questions:
Is it legitimate for a republic to acquire foreign territories and govern them without granting full citizenship rights?
The balance between strategic security (naval power, bases) and the promotion of democracy and self-determination.
Practical implications:
Naval power and the steel navy became a cornerstone of national security and global influence (influenced by Mahan’s ideas).
Administrative reforms (War College, General Staff) prepared the U.S. military for future overseas operations.
Real-world relevance:
The era established the United States as a major global actor with lasting effects on trade, territorial status, and international diplomacy.
Key Dates and Figures (for quick reference)
Open Door policy and John Hay: Open Door Note
War declaration: ext{April } 11, ext{ 1898}
Armistice with Spain: ext{August } 12, ext{ 1898}
Treaty of Paris: 1898; Cuba independence under Teller Amendment; acquisition of Guam and Puerto Rico; Philippines acquired for 20{,}000{,}000
Battle of Manila Bay (Dewey): May 1898; August 13, 1898, Manila fell
Philippines resistance and Taft administration: 2-year insurgency; Taft’s Philippine Commission and reforms; independence achieved in 1946
Foraker Act (Puerto Rico): 1900; Jones Act (Puerto Rico citizenship): 1917
Guantanamo Bay lease: 28{,}000 ext{ acres}
Open Door indemnity in Boxer Rebellion: total 333{,}000{,}000; American share 24{,}500{,}000; return to China: 18{,}000{,}000
Disease data in the war: 25{,}000 sick; 5{,}000 died from disease; roughly 400 died in battle; 113 ext{ days} of war
Notable battles: San Juan Hill (Rough Riders), Dewey’s Manila Bay victory, the Oregon’s long voyage (66 days)
(Note: The figures above reflect the content presented in the transcript. Where specific currency or unit details appear, they are presented in back-to-back LaTeX-formatted numerals for study reference.)