Brain Structures and Functions Vocabulary

Brainstem and Subcortical Structures

• Thalamus

  • Referred to as the brain's "sensory switchboard".
  • Located at the top of the brainstem.
  • Directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to the cerebellum and medulla.

• Cerebellum

  • Known as the "little brain" located at the rear of the brainstem.
  • Functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic System and Endocrine Regulation

• Limbic System

  • A system of neural structures located at the border of the brainstem.
  • Associated with emotions like fear and aggression, as well as drives such as those for food and sex.
  • Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Hypothalamus.

• Hypothalamus

  • A structure situated deep in the brain that acts as the body's smart control coordinating center.
  • Main function is to keep the body in a stable state called homeostasis.
  • Accomplishes its role by directly influencing the autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones.

• Pituitary Gland

  • The most influential gland in the endocrine system.
  • Functions under the influence of the hypothalamus.
  • Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

• Hippocampus

  • Involved in the formation of memory and processes explicit memories for storage.
  • Served as the origin point for all memories; can be thought of as a "save button."

• Amygdala

  • Consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system.
  • Linked directly to emotion, including rage and fear.

Cerebral Cortex and Hemispheric Specialization

• Cerebral Cortex

  • The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres.
  • Positioned as the outer layer of the brain's surface, located on top of the cerebrum.
  • Carries out essential brain functions, including memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and sensory functions.

• Hemispheres (Left/Right)

  • The left hemisphere controls movement for the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere directs movement for the left side.
  • They specialize in distinct mental functions (such as different aspects of visual perception), though most behaviors and abilities require activity in both halves of the brain.

• Corpus Callosum

  • A large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.
  • Responsible for carrying messages between the left and right hemispheres.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

• Frontal Lobe

  • The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead.
  • Involved in speaking, muscle movements, and in making plans and judgements.

• Temporal Lobe

  • The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears.
  • Includes auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite side.

• Occipital Lobe

  • The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head.
  • Includes visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

• Parietal Lobe

  • The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear.
  • Includes the sensory cortex and receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Specialized Cortical Regions and Language Centers

• Somatosensory Cortex

  • Located at the front of the parietal lobes.
  • Registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

• Motor Cortex

  • Located at the rear of the frontal lobes.
  • Controls voluntary movements.

• Broca's Area

  • Responsible for speech production and language comprehension.
  • Damage to this area can result in a specific type of aphasia, a condition in which an individual knows what they want to say, but when spoken, it does not make sense.

• Werenicke's Area

  • Located in the back of the temporal lobe near the occipital lobe of the left cerebral hemisphere.
  • Involved in understanding written and spoken language.

Split-Brain Phenomena and Language Impairments

• Split Brain Patient

  • An individual who has undergone a surgical procedure called a corpus callosotomy, in which the corpus callosum (the structure connecting the two hemispheres) is severed to some degree.
  • Procedure is often performed to reduce or eliminate severe epileptic seizures.

• Split Brain Research

  • Experiments conducted on people with a severed corpus callosum.
  • Confirmed that in most people, the left hemisphere is the more verbal, and the right hemisphere excels in visual perception and the recognition of emotion.

• Aphasia

  • The impairment of language that occurs when either expressive aphasia or receptive aphasia pathways/areas are damaged.
  • Depending on which type of aphasia a person has, one could be able to speak language but not understand it, and vice versa.

• Brain Plasticity

  • The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood.
  • Operates by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neuroimaging Techniques

• Electroencephalogram (EEG)

  • An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface.
  • Measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

  • A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

  • A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images.
  • Distinguishes among different types of soft tissues.

• Functional MRI (fMRI)

  • A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
  • Displays brain function.