Psychological Development in Children

Chapter 11: Height and Weight

Causes of Overweight and Obesity

Mental Health Disruptive Conduct Disorders

  • Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): A behavioral disorder occurring during middle childhood characterized by negativity, hostility, and defiance toward authority figures.

    • Persistence into middle childhood can lead to further issues.

  • Conduct Disorder (CD): A more severe disorder that entails a repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior that violates societal norms or the rights of others. Commonly seen behaviors include:

    • Truancy

    • Setting fires

    • Habitual lying

    • Fighting and bullying

    • Theft

    • Vandalism

    • Assaults

    • Drug and alcohol use

Comparison of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD) in Middle Childhood

Feature

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Conduct Disorder (CD)

Core Definition

A pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, or vindictiveness toward authority figures.

A pattern of repetitive and persistent violation of the rights of others and major age-appropriate social norms or rules.

Severity

Level of aggression and temper but typically does not cause serious harm to others or property.

More severe behaviors with aggression, destruction, deceit, and serious rule violations.

Typical Behaviors

- Argues with adults


  • Refuses to comply with rules

  • Deliberately annoys others

  • Blames others for mistakes

  • Easily annoyed or resentful | - Bullying or physical aggression

  • Cruelty to animals or people

  • Property destruction (e.g., fire-setting, vandalism)

  • Theft or deceit

  • Truancy or running away |
    | Age of Onset in Middle Childhood | Often appears in early to middle childhood; may precede CD. | Typically appears later in middle childhood or early adolescence; can sometimes follow ODD if problems escalate. |
    | Possible Outcomes | Can improve with emotion regulation training; may progress to CD if untreated. | Higher risk for delinquency, substance use, and Antisocial Personality Disorder in adulthood if persistent. |
    | Interventions | - Parent management training

  • Behavior therapy

  • Emotional regulation skills | - Multisystemic therapy

  • Family intervention

  • School collaboration

  • Sometimes includes legal or community involvement. |

Anxiety Disorders

Comparison of Different Therapies

Feature

Definition

Main Goal

Best For

How It Works

Strengths

Limitations

Family Therapy

Involves the whole family to improve communication and relationships.

Improvement and conflict resolution

Families with conflict or child behavior issues.

Joint family sessions addressing patterns and roles.

Improves family communication and relationships.

Requires family participation.

Behavior Therapy

Focuses on changing specific behaviors through reinforcement.

Behavior change and skill building.

ADHD, ODD, anxiety, or disruptive behaviors.

Modeling, reinforcement, structured routines.

Teaches concrete skills; strong evidence base.

Effects may fade without consistency.

Drug Therapy

Uses medication to manage psychological or behavioral symptoms.

Symptom reduction and biological stabilization.

Moderate to severe disorders needing medical support (e.g., ADHD, depression).

Psychiatric evaluation and prescribed medication.

Provides rapid symptom relief when effective.

Possible side effects; doesn’t teach coping skills.

Chapter 12: Piagetian Approach: The Concrete Operational Child

Concrete Operations

  • Definition: Third stage of Piagetian cognitive development, occurring approximately between ages 7 to 12.

    • Children develop logical but not abstract thinking.

Key Concepts in Concrete Operations

  • Spatial Thinking: Ability to utilize a map or model for navigation and distance estimation.

    • Example: Keisha can find her way to and from school and estimate time taken based on distance.

  • Cause and Effect: Understanding relationships between physical attributes.

    • Example: Douglas understands that while the number of objects on a balance matters, their color does not.

  • Categorization: Sorting objects into categories and understanding subclasses.

    • Example: Jordan can categorize items and understand that a subclass (roses) has fewer members than the broader category (flowers).

Key Abilities in Concrete Operations

  • Seriation: The ability to order items along a dimension.

    • Example: Catherine can arrange sticks from shortest to longest.

  • Transitive Inference: Understanding the relationships between two objects based on a third object.

    • Example: Knowledge that if one object is longer than a second, which is in turn longer than a third, then the first object is longer than the third.

  • Class Inclusion: Recognizing the relationship between a whole and its parts.

  • Inductive and Deductive Reasoning:

    • Inductive Reasoning: Arriving at a general conclusion based on specific observations.

    • Deductive Reasoning: Drawing a conclusion about a particular member based on a general premise.

  • Conservation: Understanding that certain properties remain constant despite changes in form.

    • Example: Felipe understands that a ball of clay and a rolled sausage made from it have the same amount of material (conservation of substance).

  • Horizontal Décalage: Piaget's term referring to the inconsistency in mastering different types of conservation tasks at various ages.

Cognitive Development Through Information Processing Approach

  • Executive Function: A set of cognitive processes that improve during middle childhood, including planning and regulating behavior.

    • Improvements are due to pruning of neurons in the prefrontal cortex.

Key Components of Information Processing

  • Selective Attention: Ability to focus on relevant stimuli.

  • Working Memory: Short-term holding of information for immediate use.

  • Metamemory: Understanding memory processes.

    • A component of Metacognition, which is awareness of one’s own mental processes.

Mnemonic Devices

  • Definition: Strategies employed to aid memory.

    • External Memory Aids: Strategies that utilize external tools (e.g., lists, timers).

    • Example: Writing down a phone number.

    • Rehearsal: Keeping an item in working memory through conscious repetition.

    • Organization: Creating categories or systems of knowledge for better retention.

    • Elaboration: Making mental associations between items to enhance memory retention.

Psychometric Approach: Assessment of Intelligence

  • IQ Tests: Have been shown to predict school success; however, they may underestimate intelligence due to reliance on prior knowledge.

    • Focus on a limited view of intelligence as per Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

    • Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory states that IQ tests measure primarily the componential element of intelligence, ignoring experiential and contextual elements important for real-world outcomes.

Key IQ Tests

  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III): Intelligence test yielding separate verbal and performance scores along with a combined score; applicable to children aged 6-16.

  • Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Provides scores for various cognitive abilities including fluid reasoning and visual-spatial processing.

  • Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8): Group intelligence test for K-12 students.

  • Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC-II): Designed to provide equitable assessments for minority populations and children with disabilities, measuring a wide age range from ages 3 to 18.

Dynamic Testing

  • Based on Vygotsky’s theory, focuses on the child’s zone of proximal development, emphasizing potential rather than past learning.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

  • Definition: Proposes eight distinct forms of intelligence:

    1. Naturalistic

    2. Visual-spatial

    3. Intrapersonal

    4. Musical-rhythmic

    5. Verbal-linguistic

    6. Logic

    7. Interpersonal

    8. Body-kinesthetic

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

  • Componential Element: Reflects the analytic aspect of intelligence, emphasizing problem-solving skills.

  • Experiential Element: Denotes the insightful aspect; relates to how individuals approach new or familiar tasks.

  • Contextual Element: Pertains to the practical aspect; focuses on how individuals adapt to their environment.

  • Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT): Measures the three elements of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual.

  • Tacit Knowledge: Information crucial for success, typically not formally taught in educational settings.

Culture-Fair and Culture-Free Tests

  • Culture-Free Test: Hypothetical test devoid of culturally linked content.

  • Culture-Fair Test: Designed to minimize cultural biases by incorporating experiences that are common across varied cultures.

Language and Literacy: Vocabulary, Grammar, and Syntax

Approaches to Reading Instruction

Phonetic Approach (Phonics)

  • Core Idea: “Sounding it out”

  • Philosophy: Reading is a skill that must be explicitly taught.

  • Basic Unit: Phoneme (smallest sound).

  • Process: A bottom-up approach in which children learn sounds, which they blend into letters, words, and sentences.

  • Student's Job: Decode words.

Whole Language Approach

  • Core Idea: “Guessing by context”

  • Philosophy: Reading is a natural process similar to acquiring spoken language.

  • Basic Unit: The whole word or sentence conveys meaning.

  • Process: A top-down approach where children are immersed in literature, using context, illustrations, and memory to deduce meanings.

  • Student's Job: Predict the meaning of words.

Chapter 13: The Developing Self

Self-Concept Development

  • Discussion on the stages and importance of self-concept development in childhood is anticipated in subsequent materials.