The Islamic Heartland

Expansion of the Islamic World by 1200:

• The Islamic world extended from Spain and Morocco in the west to northern India in the east, with its core in the Middle East and Egypt.

• Initial expansion occurred through the construction of the Arab Empire following Muhammad's death in 632, with subsequent conquests by Turkic-speaking groups.

• Islam spread further into Southeast and Central Asia, as well as sub-Saharan Africa, facilitated by Muslim merchants and missionaries.

Political Landscape of the Abbasid Caliphate:

• The Abbasid caliphate, which had ruled since 750, was in decline by 1200, with its political authority waning.

  • Definition: An Arab dynasty of caliphs (successors to the Prophet) who governed much of the Islamic world from its capital in Baghdad beginning in 750 C.E. After 900 C.E. that empire increasingly fragmented until its overthrow by the Mongols in 1258.

• Local governors and military commanders asserted regional autonomy while nominally recognizing the caliph in Baghdad, leading to fragmentation.

Arrival of Turkic-speaking Pastoralists:

• Turkic-speaking pastoralists from Central Asia began migrating into the Abbasid Empire around 1000.

• Initially serving as slave soldiers, they eventually rose to political and military power, establishing the Seljuk Turkic Empire in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

  • An empire of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, centered in Persia and present-day Iraq. Seljuk rulers adopted the Muslim title of sultan (ruler) as part of their conversion to Islam.

• This marked a significant shift in Islamic history, as Turkic rulers adopted Muslim titles and became influential figures in the Islamic Middle East.

Political Fragmentation of the Islamic Heartland:

• By 1200, the Islamic heartland had fractured politically into sultanates, often ruled by Persian or Turkish military dynasties.

• In the thirteenth century, the region faced invasion by the Mongols, who officially ended the Abbasid caliphate in 1258 and briefly ruled much of Persia.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire:

• The Ottoman Empire, created by Turkic warrior groups in Anatolia (Turkey), emerged as a significant political force in the fifteenth century.

• By the mid-fifteenth century, the Ottomans had expanded their territory to encompass much of Anatolia, southeastern Europe (the Balkans), and parts of the Middle East and North Africa.

• The Ottomans established a sophisticated state with a diverse population and significant economic and cultural influence, lasting from the fourteenth to the early twentieth century.

Importance of the Ottoman Empire:

• As the dominant force in the Islamic world, the Ottomans claimed the legacy of the earlier Abbasid Caliphate and sought to bring renewed unity to the Islamic world.

• Along with the Safavid dynasty in Persia, the Ottomans brought political coherence, military power, economic prosperity, and cultural brilliance to the Islamic Middle East.

Cultural Encounters in India and Spain

Turkic Conquest and Establishment of Islamic Rule in India:

• Turkic-speaking warrior groups initiated the spread of Islam through conquest into India around 1000, leading to the establishment of Islamic regimes.

• The Delhi Sultanate, founded in 1206, marked a more systematic phase of Turkic rule in India, although their influence remained modest due to small numbers and internal conflicts.

Emergence of Muslim Communities in Northern India:

• Substantial Muslim communities emerged in northern India, particularly in regions less tightly integrated into dominant Hindu culture.

• Islam attracted various groups, including disillusioned Buddhists, low-caste Hindus, and untouchables, as well as those benefiting from tax exemptions for Muslims.

Muslim Influence in India:

• Unlike in the Middle East and North Africa, where Islam became dominant, it never claimed more than 20 to 25 percent of India's population.

• Muslim communities were concentrated in regions like Punjab, Sind, and Bengal, while the core regions of Hindu culture remained largely unaffected by Islamic influence.

Hindu-Muslim Encounters and Hindu States in Southern India:

• Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagar empire, flourished in southern India, resisting Muslim incursions from the north.

• The Vijayanagar empire facilitated peaceful Hindu-Muslim encounters, with Muslim merchants contributing to trading ports and cultural exchange between the two faiths.

• While Hinduism predominated in southern India, a permanent Muslim presence fostered ongoing encounters between Hindu and Muslim cultures.

AP Comparison: How was Islam similar and different in Spain and India?

• In contrast to India, Muslim Spain saw a more sustained cross-cultural encounter with Christian Western Europe, with Muslims, Christians, and Jews mixing more freely.

• Muslim Spain became a vibrant civilization with contributions from various faiths to high culture, including astronomy, medicine, arts, architecture, and literature.

• Freedom of worship and social mobility were promoted in Muslim Spain, contributing to its prosperity and cultural richness.

Erosion of Tolerance in Muslim Spain:

• Despite initial tolerance, by the late tenth century, toleration began to decline in Muslim Spain.

• The Córdoba-based regime fragmented, leading to warfare with Christian kingdoms in northern Spain and the introduction of more rigid forms of Islam from North Africa.

• Under al-Mansur's rule, a policy of tolerance shifted towards overt persecution of Christians, including the plundering of churches and restrictions on Christian social life.

Christian Reconquest and End of Muslim Rule:

• Intolerance intensified as the Christian reconquest of Spain progressed after 1200.

• In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella captured Granada, the last Muslim stronghold, leading to the expulsion of Muslims who refused to convert.

• The Spanish monarchy issued edicts outlawing Islam, resulting in the forced conversion or exile of Muslims and Jews from Spain.

• Despite the religious reversal, cultural interchange persisted, with the translation of Arab texts into Latin and the incorporation of Islamic artistic and architectural features into Christian structures.

Legacy of Muslim Spain:

• Muslim Spain's significance lies in its role in transmitting secular Islamic learning to Christian Europe, contributing to the emergence of a new European civilization.

• While Muslim Spain ultimately disappeared from the Iberian Pen2insula, its impact on European intellectual and cultural development endured, shaping the Renaissance and beyond.