Transmission: Translators and Pilgrims

Transmission: Translators and Pilgrims

I. Introduction with Historical and Geographic Background

  • Overview of Buddhism's expansion and influence.

II. Eminent Monks of Foreign Descent

A. Significant Monks

  • Lokaksema (支婁迦讖)

    • The first known translator of Buddhist Mahayana scriptures into Chinese, circa 170 CE.

    • Established a translation bureau at Loyang.

    • Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity from Gandhara; ethnicity reflected in his Chinese name.

  • Kang Senghui (康僧會)

    • Died 280 CE; born in modern-day northern Vietnam to a Sogdian merchant.

    • Contributed to the diffusion and translation of Buddhist sutras into Chinese.

    • Legend states he used magical powers to show a Buddha relic in China.

    • Translated important jataka tales collection, “The Collected Sutra of the Six Perfections.”

  • An Shigao (安世高)

    • Active around 168 CE; a prince of Parthia who became a Buddhist missionary monk.

    • The first Buddhist translator named in Chinese sources; nickname was the "Parthian Marquis."

  • Kumarajiva (鳩摩羅什)

    • From 334–413 CE, a Kuchean monk known for translating important Buddhist texts including “The Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra,” “The Lotus Sutra,” “The Diamond Sutra,” and “The Vimalakirti Sutra.”

  • Paramārtha (真諦)

    • 499-569 CE, an Indian monk from Ujjain noted for his translations like Abhidharmakośa.

    • Invited by Emperor Wu of Liang to translate sutras in 547 CE.

III. Translators and the Translation Work

A. The Various Translators

  • Translation Philosophy

    • Saint Jerome stated, "Since my youth, it is not words but ideas that I have translated."

B. The Translation Work

  1. Challenges of Translation

    • Early Translation Process (2nd-3rd century)

      • Individual and collaborative efforts documented.

    • Second Period (5th-6th century)

      • Establishment of formal translation bureaus in China.

    • Third Period (Sui and Tang Dynasties, 6th-10th century)

      • Division of labor among translators in bureaus.

    • Problems in Translation

      • Conflict between form and meaning, style and accuracy.

C. Influences and Major Contributions

  1. Literature and Language

    • Innovations in philology, etymology, and lexicography were spurred by translations.

    • Introduction of new terms for Buddhist concepts, e.g.,

      • 無明 (ignorance)

      • 因緣 (karma)

      • 出家 (leave the family)

    • Transliterations of Sanskrit terms, examples:

      • 塔 (ta - pagoda)

      • 菩薩 (pusa - bodhisattva)

      • 僧 (seng - Sangha)

      • 智慧 (wisdom - prajna)

    • Early translations paved the way for further development of printing technologies around the world.

D. The Invention of Printing

  • The Diamond Sutra, dated 868 CE, is recognized as the world's oldest printed book utilizing woodblock printing techniques.

IV. Eminent Monks of Han Ethnicity

  1. Faxian

  2. Xuan Zang (玄奘)

  3. Yi Jing (義淨)

V. Pilgrims

A. Motivation Behind Pilgrimage to India

  • Primary reasons include:

    • To procure original Buddhist texts and study Sanskrit for accurate translation.

    • To learn doctrines directly from Indian teachers.

    • To invite Indian teachers to Han lands for preaching Buddhism.

    • Visits to sacred Buddhist sites, e.g., Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Benares, and Kusinagara.

B. Geographical Context

  • Map representation showing regions significant to Buddhist trade and cultural exchange.

C. Notable Pilgrimages

  • Fa Xian (c. 337? - 422?) and Xuanzang (629–644), detailing their significant journeys and contributions to Buddhist scholarship and translation.

D. The Shift in Perception

  • Xuanzang’s reflections on India as the center of Buddhism versus Han lands seen as borderlands; his efforts to bring accurate teachings back to China.

  • Xuanzang is explicit about the imperfections he finds in existing translations, expressing frustrations regarding inaccuracies in translated texts.