Revolutions and Political Changes in the Early 20th Century

An intense period of rebellion continued into the early 1900s.
Nicholas the Second, the last Russian tsar, failed to grasp the political opposition to his rule.
His misjudgment led to his assassination in 1918.
In the early 20th century, rebellions occurred against longstanding authoritarian governments in Russia, China, and Mexico.
  - These revolutions challenged the existing political and social order.
  - The revolutionaries instigated their own political philosophies and practices.
  - Established land-based and maritime empires collapsed under both internal and external pressures.

Economic Challenges: Russia fell behind other powers like Europe, the United States, and Japan.
- Internal issues hindered economic growth; the government did not promote industrialization or education.
- The expansion of education for peasants, infrastructure (roads), and entrepreneurship was slow.
Political Resistance: The Tsarist government resisted calls for political reform and civil liberties.
Military Weakness: Without a strong economy to support military endeavors, Russia weakened in international affairs.
  - Losses in significant conflicts:
    - Crimean War (1853-1856): Russia vs. the Ottoman Empire supported by Great Britain and France.
    - Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Competition for influence in East Asia. Japan won decisively, marking a landmark victory for an East Asian nation against a European power.

Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905):
- A peaceful march by thousands of workers demanding better working conditions, higher wages, and universal suffrage.
- Tsar's troops shot at the marchers; approximately 1,300 were killed.
Revolution of 1905:
- Following Bloody Sunday, about 400,000 workers went on strike across Russia.
- The Tsar attempted appeasement, but thousands were killed or exiled during this unrest.
World War I (1914):
- Russia declared war on Germany.
- The military was poorly trained and armed, leading to discontent among civilians due to food shortages.
Bolshevik Revolution (1917):
  - The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power and established a communist government.
  - They espoused the belief that workers should ultimately own production means, leading to collective prosperity.
  - Policies included:
    - Abolishing private trade.
    - Redistributing crops to urban workers.
    - Nationalizing factories and heavy industries.

China's Qing dynasty faced significant internal challenges, leading to its downfall in 1911.
Internal Issues:
  - Ethnic Tensions: The Qing rulers were Manchus governing a nation primarily composed of Han Chinese.
  - Famine and Agriculture: Rapid population growth without corresponding land expansion led to food scarcity and vulnerability to natural disasters.
  - Low Government Revenues:
    - An outdated tax system limited funds for public works like roads and irrigation.
External Challenges:
- Initially wealthy and powerful, China faced threats from industrialization in Europe.
- European trade efforts were confined to Canton; however, European goods were not in demand in China.
Revolution of 1911: Led by Sun Yat-sen, aimed to establish a republic following the Qing's overthrow.
  - Sun Yat-sen's principles in his book "Three Principles of the People":
    - Democracy: Advocated for governance by pragmatic experts in the interest of the people.
    - Nationalism: Called for loyalty to central authority and expulsion of foreign capitalists to redistribute land taxes fairly.
    - Livelihood: Desired an end to wealth inequality and exploitation of peasants.
Sun's political party, the Kuo Ming Tang, struggled to maintain power against various warlords.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire's economy was in decline, relying on trade while maintaining a dwindling agricultural base.
- Egypt continued to profit from cotton, contrasting with Ottoman decline.
Young Turks Movement:
- Reform-minded group advocating constitutional governance akin to Europe.
- Promoted "Turkification," aiming to unify the empire's multi-ethnic populace under a Turkish-Islamic identity.
World War I:
- The Ottomans allied with Germany, leading to their defeat and disintegration post-war.
- The empire was replaced with the Republic of Turkey.
Establishment of the Republic of Turkey (1923):
  - Led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who advocated for a reformist agenda.
  - Focused on creating a secular nation akin to Western democracies, implementing significant reforms:
    - Established public education for all children.
    - Abolished polygyny and expanded voting rights to women.
    - Emphasized Western-style dress and social norms.
  - Ataturk ruled as a dictator until his death in 1938.

Mexico entered the 20th century under the control of dictator Porfirio Diaz, whose regime was marked by economic growth but heavy foreign investment, particularly from the United States.
- The 1% of the wealthiest owned 97% of the land, leaving many peasants landless.
Ignition of the Revolution (1910):
- Diaz jailed opposition candidate Francisco Madero, leading to widespread unrest.
- Madero escaped to set up covert revolutionary offices in El Paso, Texas.
By 1911, Madero’s troops, including those led by Francisco Pancho Villa, defeated government forces, leading to Diaz’s exile.
Emiliano Zapata:
- Under his leadership, land redistribution efforts for impoverished peasants commenced.
The revolution led to devastating violence, with around 2,000,000 deaths from 1910-1920 in a population of approximately 15,000,000.
Political instability persisted until changes in governance:
- Adoption of a new constitution in 1917, focusing on land redistribution, universal suffrage, and public education as guiding principles.
- Formation of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1929, which dominated politics until 2000, despite being criticized for corruption.