chap 6 pt 1 Content Theories of Motivation – Lecture Review

Motivation: Definition and Key Concepts

• Motivation = conscious or unconscious reasons that energize, direct, sustain, or stop behaviour; an individual’s general desire to act.
• Psychological sequence (Figure 6-1):
  • Unsatisfied need or want → internal tension.
  • Drive (energized behaviour) → goal-directed action.
  • Satisfied need or want → tension reduction.
• In organisations: motivation directly influences performance; managers must recognise and shape both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
  • Extrinsic (manager can directly control): salary, working conditions, interpersonal climate, benefits.
  • Intrinsic (manager can only influence): recognition, achievement, personal growth, purpose.

Categories of Motivation Theories

• Content (needs) theories: WHAT drives behaviour; focus on inner deficiencies to be satisfied.
• Process (cognitive) theories: HOW behaviour is energised, directed, sustained, halted; focus on mental calculations, expectations, attributions.
• Chapter 6 covers four content theories: Maslow, Alderfer ERG, Herzberg Two-Factor, McClelland (introduced later in text).
• Chapter 7 will cover five process theories (Expectancy, Equity, Satisfaction-Performance, Goal-Setting, Reinforcement).
• Chapter 8 will discuss Attribution Theory.

Learning Outcomes for Chapter 6

• Define motivation.
• Distinguish content vs process theories.
• Explain Maslow’s Hierarchy and criticisms.
• Describe Alderfer’s ERG Theory.
• Explain Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and its job-design implications.
• Relate Hackman & Oldham’s Job Characteristics Model (mentioned but content appears later).
• Summarise McClelland’s Three-Needs Theory (content appears later).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Five sequential levels (Figure 6-2):
  1. Physiological (air, water, food).
  2. Safety–Security (home, job security, retirement plan, insurance).
  3. Love & Belonging (friendship, community, team acceptance).
  4. Self-Esteem (two forms):
  • External esteem: status, recognition, respect of others.
  • Internal esteem: self-respect, autonomy, confidence, competence.
  1. Self-Actualisation ("being" need): becoming everything one is capable of.
• Lower four = deficiency needs (D-needs); highest = growth/being need (B-need).
• Key characteristics of self-actualised people (Maslow 1970):
  • Acceptance & realism, problem-centring, spontaneity, autonomy, freshness of appreciation, peak experiences.
• Managerial applications (Figure 6-3):
  • Salary/working environment satisfy physiological.
  • Safe workplace, benefits packages satisfy safety.
  • Team building, supportive supervision satisfy belonging.
  • Praise, advancement, challenging work satisfy esteem.
  • Creativity, innovation opportunities, autonomy satisfy self-actualisation.

Case Study 6-1: Poor Cindy—Maslow in Action

• 25-year employee hears rumours of layoffs (threat to Safety-Security need).
• Anxiety over job security diverts focus; quality & memory decline; psychosomatic illness.
• Until lower-level safety need is addressed, higher-order esteem/actualisation cannot motivate her.

Criticisms & Managerial Implications of Maslow

• Empirical support limited; studies produce mixed or contradictory ordering of needs.
• Huizinga study (600 Dutch managers) found no single dominant need and no reduction of strength after gratification.
• Exceptions (Mother Teresa, “starving artist”) show people may pursue higher needs while lower remain unmet.
• Yet model remains popular because of intuitive appeal, simplicity, alignment with organisational hierarchies.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Compresses Maslow into three flexible categories (Table 6-1):
  • Existence (E): material & physiological—pay, benefits, working conditions.
  • Relatedness (R): interpersonal relationships—family, friends, co-workers, supervisors.
  • Growth (G): intrinsic desire to develop competence & creativity.
• Key differences from Maslow:
  1. Needs are not strictly sequential; higher-level pursuit can begin before lower satisfied.
  2. Cultural differences allowed; ordering varies by individual/society.
  3. Frustration–Regression Principle:
  • If blocked from a higher need, individual regresses to lower need to regain satisfaction.
  • Explains intensified socialising or pay focus when growth blocked.
• Managerial takeaways:
  • Multiple needs can operate simultaneously; satisfy more than one.
  • Monitor for regression signals and adjust environment (e.g., offer mentorship when promotions unavailable).

Case Study 6-2: Jennifer & Frustration–Regression

• Operating-room nurse valued relatedness (team camaraderie) but sought Growth (assistant manager role).
• When promotion denied, regressed to Relatedness: increased social outings, peer support.
• Director later offers mentorship (Growth opportunity), restoring progression.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation–Hygiene) Theory

• Based on interviews with 200 engineers/accountants about events causing extreme satisfaction/dissatisfaction.
• Two independent sets of factors:
  1. Motivators (intrinsic, job content): Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility, Advancement.
  • Presence → job satisfaction & higher motivation.
  1. Hygienes (extrinsic, job context): Company & administrative policies, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relations, Working conditions.
  • Absence → job dissatisfaction; presence merely prevents dissatisfaction (does not create satisfaction).
• Relationship illustrated in Exhibit 6-1:
  • \text{High Motivators} \Rightarrow \text{Job Satisfaction} even if Hygienes neutral.
  • \text{Poor Hygienes} \Rightarrow \text{Job Dissatisfaction} even if Motivators present.
• Practical meaning:
  • Remove dissatisfiers first; then add motivators.
  • Salary = “baseline reward.” If inadequate → focus on money & anxiety; if adequate → becomes neutral.

Shoves vs Tugs: Demotivators and Motivators (Exhibit 6-2)

• Modern reinterpretation of Herzberg:
  • Shoves = basic dissatisfiers (schedules, compensation, poor conditions) pushing employees out.
  • Tugs = higher-order satisfiers (challenging work, growth, culture) pulling employees to stay.
• Leaders must eliminate Shoves before adding Tugs; otherwise motivators have little impact.
• Example: Nurse Pat loves research (Tug) but new shift schedule (Shove) threatens quitting—must fix schedule first.
• Survey data: 76 % of employees experienced managerial Shoves in past year; 89 % experienced organisational Shoves.

Critiques and Practical Recommendations for Managers

• Herzberg criticised because a single factor (e.g., responsibility) can act as motivator for one, dissatisfier for another.
• Salary placement debated; Herzberg’s stance: inadequate pay causes dissatisfaction, adequate pay is neutral, not motivating.
• Empirical mixed support, yet Two-Factor remains influential for job design & enrichment.
• Managerial guidelines across theories:
  • Diagnose individual needs; avoid one-size-fits-all.
  • Ensure hygiene/existence/safety needs are met to prevent dissatisfaction or regression.
  • Provide meaningful, challenging work, recognition, autonomy to foster higher-order motivation.
  • Watch for signals of frustration-regression (increased socialising, absenteeism, performance drop) and intervene.
  • Use both extrinsic rewards and intrinsic enrichment; but introduce in correct sequence (remove Shoves, then add Tugs).