Conditioning and Learning

Conditioning and Learning Notes

What is Learning?

• Definition: Learning is a change in behavior that results from experience.

• Related Concept: Remember the idea of Behaviorism, which emphasizes observable behaviors.

Behaviorism Overview

• Key figures: Pavlov and Skinner.

Importance of Learning

• Survival: Learning enables individuals to adapt their behaviors to their environments.

• Examples to consider: Changes in behavior for hunting, foraging, social interactions, etc.

Associative Learning

• Definition: Learning through associations, primarily through two forms of conditioning:

• Classical Conditioning: Learning that two stimuli go together.

Classical Conditioning

• Pavlov's Contribution: Discovered that dogs salivate at the sight of food bowls, illustrating learned behavior through association.

• Key Components:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior training.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): A natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, comes to elicit a conditioned response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s Experiment Steps

1. Initial State: CS (Bell) → No response

2. US (Meat) → UR (Salivating)

3. Learning Stage: CS (Bell) + US (Meat) → UR (Salivating)

4. Final Stage: CS (Bell) → CR (Salivating)

Classical Conditioning Phenomena

• Acquisition: The process of forming an association between CS and US.

• Note: Strongest conditioning when CS is presented just before US.

• Extinction: The weakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of the CR after a rest period following extinction.

Additional Concepts in Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus Generalization: Learning occurs when stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiation between similar stimuli where only one is linked to the US, resulting in distinct responses.

Operant Conditioning

• Description: Learning is influenced by the consequences of behavior.

• Skinner Box: A method used to demonstrate operant conditioning.

Reinforcement and Punishment

• Reinforcer: An element that increases behavior.

• Punisher: An element that decreases behavior.

• Types:

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding a favorable stimulus (e.g., a pay raise).

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unfavorable stimulus (e.g., taking aspirin for a headache).

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., a speeding ticket).

• Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., losing driving privileges).

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Necessary for survival (food, water).

• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers (money, praise).

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces every instance of behavior; quick learning but not realistic for long-term.

2. Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces behavior occasionally; more practical and leads to greater persistence.

3. Types of Partial Schedules:

   • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period (e.g., paycheck).

   • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time periods (e.g., pop quizzes).

   • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors (e.g., paid per task).

   • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a varying number of occurrences (e.g., slot machine).

Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect

• Behavior persists longer under partial reinforcement compared to continuous.

• Conditioning Strategy: Start with continuous reinforcement before shifting to partial.

Effectiveness of Punishment

• For punishment to work, it must be reasonable, immediate, and clearly linked to the behavior.

• Positive punishments often cause negative emotional responses and may be ineffective.

Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)

• Four Stages:

• Attention, Retention, Initiation, Motivation.

• Bobo Doll Experiment: Demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behaviors observed in adults.

Biological Influences

• Mirror Neurons: Facilitate imitation but not definitive in causing it. Still a subject of research.

Hebbian Learning

• Neurons that fire together enhance synaptic connections, making future firing more likely.

• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Increased synaptic strength is linked to learning and memory; supported by evidence from the hippocampus and drug studies.

Memory Overview

• Memory is the nervous system's capacity to acquire and retain skills and knowledge for later retrieval.

• Involves three major processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Memory Processes

• Encoding: Processing information for storage.

• Types of encoding: Effortful vs. Automatic.

• Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.

• Retrieval: Recalling or remembering stored information when needed.

Measuring Memory

• Recognition: Identifying an item among choices (e.g., multiple-choice tests).

• Example: "What is the capital of France?"

• Recall: Retrieving information using effort (e.g., fill-in-the-blank tests).

• Example: "The capital of France is ."

• Relearning: Measuring time or effort saved when learning material for the second time.

• Example: Recall a list of items and measure trials taken to learn.

Memory Storage Types (Atkinson & Shiffrin)

• Sensory Storage: Briefly holds vast amounts of information in original sensory formats.

• Short-Term Storage: Holds limited information temporarily.

• Working Memory: Active processing system for manipulating information in short-term storage.

• Capacity: 7±2 items, as proposed by George Miller.

• Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful units to facilitate memory.

Long-Term Storage

• Long-Term Storage: Allows relatively permanent storage of large amounts of information.

• Deep Encoding: Involves maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.

  • Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information, while elaborative rehearsal connects new information to existing knowledge for better retention.

• Schemas: Structures that help organize and interpret information in long-term memory.

• Association Networks: Information is organized based on interconnected networks of related concepts.

• Spreading Activation: Activation of specific nodes in memory when certain information is perceived.

Amnesia Types

• Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of access to memories formed before a brain injury.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Memory Types

• Explicit Memory: Long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described.

• Types:

  • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.

  • Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world.

• Implicit Memory: Long-term storage of unconscious memories that cannot be verbally described.

• Involves skills and conditioned responses (classical conditioning, procedural memory).

Memory and the Brain

• Memory processing is specialized across different brain areas; it does not reside in one specific region.

• Consolidation: The process through which immediate memories become stable long-term memories.

• Reconsolidation: Reactivating a memory requires reconsolidation for it to stabilize again, which may alter the memory.

Retrieval Cues

• Retrieval Cues: Anything that aids in accessing information in long-term storage (e.g., mnemonics, environmental cues).

• Context-Dependent Memory: Memory retrieval improves when in the same context as the original learning.

• State-Dependent Memory: Memory retrieval is enhanced when internal states during retrieval match internal states during encoding.

Forgetting

• Forgetting: The inability to access long-term memories, which can occur through several mechanisms:

• Decay: Loss of information over time (Hermann Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve).

• Interference:

  • Retroactive Interference: New information hampers the recall of older information.

  • Proactive Interference: Older information interferes with the recall of new information.

Memory Distortion

• Memory is not perfectly accurate and can be distorted by:

• Memory Bias: Changing memories to fit current beliefs or attitudes.

• Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events.

• Misattribution: Incorrectly recalling the context of a memory.

• Suggestibility: Memory distortion due to misleading information.

• False Memories: Imagined events become confused with real memories (especially in children).

Improving Memory

• Strategies to enhance memory:

• Study material repeatedly.

• Make material personally meaningful and engage in deeper processing.

• Utilize mnemonic devices (e.g., method of loci, stories, chunking).

• Activate retrieval cues by mentally recreating learning contexts.

• Recall information before being exposed to misinformation.

• Distribute study sessions over time (distributed practice over cramming).

• Prioritize good sleep habits for memory consolidation and recall efficiency.

roduction to Motivation

• Goals require motivation

• Intrinsic motivation: Engaging in behavior because it is inherently satisfying.

• Extrinsic motivation: Engaging in behavior to achieve an external reward or avoid punishment.

• Personal Reflection: Consider whether your motivations are primarily intrinsic, extrinsic, or a mix of both.

Key Factors Influencing Motivation

• Definition of Motivation: Factors that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

• Four Basic Qualities of Motivation:

• Activating: Stimulates action.

• Directive: Guides behavior toward specific goals.

Functions of Emotions

Basic Concepts

• Emotion: Feelings that involve:

• Physical responses

• Changes in thoughts and actions

• Personal evaluation

Importance of Emotions

• Why do we have emotions?

• Intrapersonal: Internal emotional experiences and their relevance to the self.

• Interpersonal: Emotions in interactions with others.

• Social & Cultural: Emotions within societal norms and identities.

Intrapersonal Functions

• Preparation for Action:

• Emotions prepare the body for action, activating certain systems while deactivating others.

• Influence on Thought:

• Emotion can disrupt rational thinking, making it hard to think positively when angry or negatively when faced with happiness.

• Motivation:

• Emotions drive behavior; strong negative emotions can lead to significant changes in actions.

Theories of Emotion

1. James-Lange Theory:

• Emotions arise from the experience of physiological reactions.

• E.g., we feel afraid because we tremble.

1. Cannon-Bard Theory:

• Emotions and bodily responses occur simultaneously due to brain processing.

• E.g., feeling fear at the same time as increased heart rate.

1. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory:

• The experience of emotion is influenced by the cognitive label we apply to physiological changes.

• E.g., if we perceive arousal in a context we associate with fear, we label it fear.

1. Facial Feedback Hypothesis:

• The facial expressions we make can influence our emotional experience.

Interpersonal Functions

• Emotional Expressions:

• Facilitate specific responses in perceivers.

• Signal the nature of interpersonal relationships.

• Social Behavior Incentives:

• Emotional expressions provide incentives for desired social interactions and can guide behaviors through social referencing.

Social and Cultural Functions

• Culture & Emotions:

• Cultural context shapes worldviews and influences emotional expression.

• Each culture has unique norms for displaying emotions (Cultural Display Rules).

Introduction to Subjective Well-being

• Subjective well-being refers to how individuals experience the quality of their lives and includes both emotional reactions and cognitive judgments.

Three Types of Happiness

• Life Satisfaction: How individuals evaluate their lives as a whole.

• Examples: "I think my life is great", "I am satisfied with my job".

• Positive Feelings: Experiencing joy and positive affect.

• Enjoying life, loving others, having few chronic worries, rarely feeling sad or angry.

• Low Negative Feelings: Minimizing negative emotional experiences.

Causes of Happiness

• Internal Causes: Factors from within an individual that affect happiness.

• Good income, achieving one’s goals, high self-esteem, supportive friendships, interesting work, extraverted personality, low neuroticism, harmony in goals, positive outlook.

• External Causes: Factors that exist outside the individual.

• Sufficient material resources, adequate social support, and belonging to a desirable society.

Adaptation to Circumstances

• Adaptation occurs when people initially react strongly to good or bad events but eventually return to their previous level of happiness. This phenomenon is known as the hedonic treadmill.

Measuring Happiness

• Various self-report scales can assess happiness through agreement levels:

• Strongly agree (7) to Strongly disagree (1) on statements like:

  • "I lead a purposeful and meaningful life."

  • "I actively contribute to the happiness of others."

  • "I am optimistic about my future."

Ways to Be Happier

• Consider changes in life that enhance meaning and happiness.

• Look for the positive aspects in situations.

• Surround yourself with uplifting individuals.

• Actions to improve happiness:

• Help others, express gratitude, find meaningful work.

Factors Influencing Health

• 12 Factors

• Maintain a healthy weight

• Regular physical activity

• Consistent sleep patterns

• Avoid smoking

• Moderate or no alcohol consumption

• Practice safe sex

• Foster community connections.

Stress and Health

• Definition of Stress: The behavioral, mental, and physical responses that occur when events challenge an individual's ability to cope

• Stressors: Events or stimuli that threaten well-being.

• Stress Responses: The physical, behavioral, and psychological reactions to stressors.

Types of Stressors

• Major Life Stressors: Significant disruptions impacting daily life.

• Daily Hassles: Minor irritations that accumulate and can lead to significant stress.

Eustress

• Positive stress that benefits health, motivates, improves performance, and enhances emotional well-being.

General Adaptation Syndrome

• Stages of stress responses:

• Alarm: Initial reaction to stress.

• Resistance: Body's attempt to adapt.

• Exhaustion: Energy depletion leads to potential failure of bodily systems.

Coping with Stress

• Coping Types:

• Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotional reactions.

• Problem-focused coping: Tackling the source of stress directly.

Reducing Exam Anxiety

• Strategies include changing mindset about exams, ensuring adequate rest, arriving early, and employing effective test-taking skills.

Social Support and Health

• Social support contributes to better health by reducing overall stress and enhancing coping with stressful situations.

• Marriage correlates with improved health and longevity but varies across age groups.

Strategies for Enhancing Health and Well-being

• Eat natural foods and control portion sizes.

• Stay active and avoid smoking.

• Learn relaxation techniques and develop strong social support networks.

• Consider spiritual health and happiness enhancing exercises.