The 1920s: CULTURAL and POLITICAL Controversies [APUSH Unit 7 Topic 8] Period 7:1898-1945

Changing Demographics in the 1920s

By 1920, over half of Americans resided in urban areas, reflecting a significant demographic transformation in the country. This shift from rural to urban living opened new opportunities for various groups, particularly women, immigrants, and internal migrants, fundamentally altering the social fabric of American life.

Opportunities for Women

Traditional Roles:

• Middle-class women were primarily expected to care for the home and raise children, adhering to societal norms that defined their roles within the confines of domesticity.

Workforce Participation:

• Urban women found a range of job opportunities in fields such as nursing, teaching, and clerical positions, which were seen as suitable for their perceived social roles.

• Many women also entered factories, contributing to the labor force, although they typically earned lower wages compared to their male counterparts. This wage disparity highlighted the ongoing challenges related to gender equality in the workplace.

Flappers:

• Flappers became a symbol of women's liberation during the 1920s, representing a departure from traditional norms.

• These young women challenged societal expectations through their fashion choices—adopting shorter haircuts, wearing daring clothing, and engaging in behaviors like smoking and drinking in public, which were previously deemed unacceptable.

• The flapper movement both reflected and propelled new social attitudes toward women's independence and sexuality.

Impact of Immigration

Post-WWI Immigration Surge:

• The United States experienced a significant influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as Asia, as individuals sought better opportunities and refuge from post-war turmoil.

• The diverse cultures, languages, and traditions brought by these immigrants enriched American society, although they also led to tensions in certain communities.

Nativist Backlash:

• As immigration rates surged, a resurgence of nativism occurred, characterized by sentiments aimed at protecting the rights and interests of native-born citizens, particularly those identifying as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants.

• Fears emerged regarding potential job loss due to lower-wage immigrant labor, along with concerns over maintaining racial and cultural purity in a rapidly diversifying nation.

Legislative Response:

• The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 limited immigration to 3% of the 1910 census population, effectively closing the doors to many prospective immigrants.

• The National Origins Act of 1924 further restricted immigration, instituting quotas that favorited Northern and Western Europeans, thereby institutionalizing racial and ethnic bias in immigration policies.

Internal Migrants: The Great Migration

Overview:

• The Great Migration marked a significant movement of Southern Black populations to Northern and Midwestern cities, particularly focusing on areas like Harlem in New York City, driven by the pursuit of better economic opportunities and escape from Jim Crow laws.

Harlem Renaissance:

• This period saw a cultural revival of African American arts and intellect, characterized by a flourishing of creative expression across music, literature, and visual arts.

• Notable figures included:

  • Musicians: Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, who played pivotal roles in the birth of jazz music.

  • Writers: Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, whose works explored the complexities of the Black experience in America, weaving themes of resilience, identity, and cultural pride.

The Lost Generation

Definition and Key Figures:

• The term Lost Generation was coined by writer Gertrude Stein to describe a group of disillusioned writers who felt disconnected from American society after the trauma of World War I.

• Notable authors included F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway, whose literary works captured the sentiments of the time.

Themes:

• Their writings often critiqued American materialism, highlighting the hollowness of the post-war consumer culture and the wasted potential that resulted from the war's devastating impacts.

Urban vs. Rural Divisions

Urban Protestants (Modernists):

• Modernists, often residing in urban areas, embraced cultural changes and social progressivism, integrating contemporary ideas about gender roles and scientific theories such as Darwinism into their worldview.

Rural Protestants (Fundamentalists):

• In contrast, rural fundamentalists resisted these changes, holding onto strict biblical interpretations and traditional values, leading to a cultural divide between urban and rural populations.

The Scopes Monkey Trial (1925)

Background:

• The Scopes Trial emerged when John Scopes, a high school teacher, was prosecuted in Tennessee for violating a law that prohibited the teaching of evolution in public schools, a focal point in the cultural conflict between modernism and fundamentalism.

Key Figures:

• Defense: Clarence Darrow, a prominent attorney advocating for academic freedom and modern scientific understanding.

• Prosecution: William Jennings Bryan, a three-time presidential candidate and a staunch advocate of biblical literalism.

Trial Dynamics:

• The trial attracted massive media attention, becoming a sensational public spectacle that showcased the intense ideological clash of the era.

• Although Scopes was initially convicted, the verdict was later overturned on a technicality, underscoring the ongoing struggle between evolving social values and traditional beliefs.

Significance:

• The Scopes Monkey Trial symbolized the broader national conflict between modernist and fundamentalist viewpoints, with the events contributing to a lasting dialogue about science, religion, and education in America.