Language Acquisition Theories

Structuralism and Ferdinand de Saussure

• Structuralism in linguistics: views language as a structured system of signs, where meaning comes from relationships between elements, not external references.
• Ferdinand de Saussure: Considered the father of modern structural linguistics.
• Key concepts:
  • Langue vs. Parole: Langue is the system of language, while parole is individual speech acts.
  • Sign = Signifier + Signified: The sign is composed of the signifier (sound/image) and the signified (concept).
  • Synchronic vs. Diachronic Study: Emphasized synchronic study (studying language at a given time) over diachronic study (historical development).

Generative Grammar and Noam Chomsky

• Generative grammar: Aims to describe speakers' implicit knowledge of their native language's structure and rules.
• Noam Chomsky: Introduced transformational-generative grammar in the 1950s.
  • Argued language is innate.
  • Humans are born with a language faculty.
  • Differentiated between competence (knowledge of language) and performance (actual language use).
  • Deep structure (underlying syntactic structure) vs. surface structure (spoken form).

Universal Grammar (UG): Principles and Parameters

• Universal Grammar (UG): Innate principles shared by all human languages.
• Principles: Universal aspects of grammar common to all languages (e.g., structure dependence).
• Parameters: Aspects that vary across languages, set based on linguistic input (e.g., word order like subject-verb-object vs. subject-object-verb).
• Explains how children quickly acquire languages despite limited input (poverty of the stimulus argument).

Criticisms of Generativism

• Generative grammar, despite its influence, has faced several critiques.

Cognitive and Functional Theories

Connectionism

• Connectionism: A computational approach that models mental processes as networks of interconnected nodes, resembling the brain's structure.
• Cognitive functions (memory, perception, language) emerge from interactions between simple processing units.
• Knowledge is distributed across the network, not stored in specific locations like in symbolic models.
• Learning involves modifying the weights of connections between units.
• Example of Neural Network Action: A connectionist model can simulate how humans recognize visual objects. When exposed to images of various dogs, it can learn to recognize a dog by adjusting the connections between units based on visual features like fur texture, size, and shape.

Emergentism and Usage-Based Theories

• Emergentism: Complex cognitive structures arise naturally from simpler components through interactions with the environment.
• In language acquisition, linguistic knowledge emerges from patterns in the input rather than innate structures.
• Usage-Based Theories: Language development is shaped by the patterns of language use children encounter.
• Frequent patterns in language are more likely to be acquired.
• Emphasizes learning through exposure rather than pre-set, innate linguistic frameworks.

Functionalism

• Functionalism in linguistics: Emphasizes language as a tool for communication.
• Language forms are shaped by communicative purposes and social functions, not abstract grammatical rules.
• Linguistic structures evolve to serve the needs of speakers in their contexts.

Ronald Langacker

• Key proponent of cognitive functionalism.
• Cognitive Grammar: Grammar isn't separate from meaning but reflects cognitive structures that emerge from experiences and conceptualizations.
• According to Langacker's theory, grammar is seen as a system of conceptualizations that reflect how speakers categorize the world. For instance, consider the sentence: "The boy is running." In Cognitive Grammar, "running" is not just a verb; it reflects an action conceptualized as happening in a particular time and space. The grammatical structure ("is running") captures the cognitive understanding of ongoing action.

Michael Tomasello

• Known for Usage-Based Theory.
• Language is learned through social interaction and shared experiences.
• Meaning and grammar emerge from speakers' communicative intentions and frequent use of linguistic structures in context.
• Tomasello suggests that children acquire language through interaction and experience with their caregivers. For example, when a child learns the word "ball," it's not just because they hear it repeatedly but because they associate the word with a specific action or object (e.g., throwing or catching the ball). Over time, children start using "ball" in various contexts, like "I want the ball," based on its use in different social situations.

Nativism vs. Interactionism

• The debate between nativism and interactionism focuses on the origins of language acquisition and the mechanisms through which children learn language.

Nativist Approach

• Nativists (e.g., Noam Chomsky): Humans are born with an innate language faculty, often referred to as Universal Grammar.
• Language acquisition is largely driven by biological predispositions rather than social interaction.
• According to Chomsky, children are born with an inherent ability to acquire language, as evidenced by their ability to learn complex grammatical structures without explicit instruction. For example, children are able to produce sentences they've never heard before, like "I goed to the store," by applying internal grammatical rules (e.g., regular past tense formation) despite never having heard that exact form.

Interactionist Approach

• Interactionists (e.g., Lev Vygotsky, Michael Tomasello): Language acquisition results from social interaction and cognitive processes emerging from a child's environment.
• Language is learned through exposure to linguistic input and communication with others.
• According to Tomasello, children learn language by engaging with caregivers and others in their environment. A child might learn the phrase "give me" by repeatedly hearing it in interactions like "Give me the ball" or "Give me a cookie." The meaning of the phrase is grounded in the social interaction and the child's intentions (wanting something). Over time, the child internalizes the structure based on its use in specific contexts.

Theories of Language Acquisition: Nativism, Interactionism, and Connectionism

Nativism

• Language acquisition is an innate ability humans are born with.
• Noam Chomsky's concept of Universal Grammar suggests all children have an inborn ability to acquire language.

Interactionism

• Emphasizes the importance of social interaction between a child and their caregivers.
• Language development is a collaborative process where children learn through interaction with others.

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)

• Suggests there is a window of time in early life when language acquisition is most effective; after this period, learning becomes significantly more difficult.

The Role of Input in Language Learning

• Input: Language a child is exposed to.
• Amount and quality of input play a critical role in a child's language development.

Developmental Stages

• Pre-linguistic or Pre-verbal Stage (0-6 months):
  • Infants are not yet using words but lay the foundation for language.
  • Example: Lily, a 3-month-old, coos with sounds like "oooh" and "aaah." Her parents smile, talk to her, and mimic her sounds, encouraging early vocalization and listening.
• Babbling Stage (6-9 months):
  • Infants begin producing repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like "ba-ba" and "da-da."
  • Example: Ben, at 7 months, babbles "ba-ba-ba" and looks at his mother, who responds, "Yes, that's a ball!" reinforcing his sound production and word-object associations.
• One-word Stage (12-18 months):
  • Children begin using single words (holophrases) to represent larger ideas.
  • Example: At 12 months, Anna points at her bottle and says, "Milk." This single word stands for "I want milk," demonstrating early word use.
• Two-word Stage (18-24 months):
  • Children combine two words to form simple sentences, signaling the beginning of grammar.
  • Example: At 20 months, Oliver says, "Want cookie" when hungry, combining words to express needs, showing early grammar development.
• Early Multi-word Stage (24-30 months):
  • Children start forming short, more complex sentences but may still make grammatical errors.
  • Example: Mia, at 28 months, says, "Mommy go work" when her mother leaves, using a simple subject-verb structure but with some grammatical mistakes.
• Later Multi-word Stage (30+ months):
  • Children use varied sentence structures, including more complex syntax and vocabulary.
  • Example: At 3 years old, Liam says, "I can't find my toy because it's under the couch," forming complex sentences with conjunctions like "because."
• Complex Sentences and Refinement (3-7 years):
  • Children master complex grammatical structures and vocabulary, showing fluency in syntax and meaning.
  • Example: By age 5, Ella says, "I didn't want to go to the park because it was raining, but I like to play inside too," demonstrating advanced syntax and complex sentences.

First Language Acquisition

• First language acquisition: The natural process by which humans learn their native language during early childhood without formal instruction, through exposure in daily life.

Key Features:

• Natural and unconscious: Children acquire their first language simply by hearing and interacting with others, without formal teaching.
• Happens in stages: Language development follows a fairly predictable pattern.
• Sensitive period: There's a critical or sensitive period (typically before puberty) during which language acquisition is easiest and most successful.
• Universal across cultures: Children will acquire the language(s) they are exposed to, regardless of where they are born.

Phonological Development in Infants

• Phonological development: How infants learn the sounds of their language.
• Begins before birth: Babies can recognize their mother's voice and the rhythm of their native language while still in the womb.
• 0-6 months: Infants coo and produce vowel-like sounds, distinguishing between different phonemes (e.g., /b/ and /p/).
• 6-12 months: Babies begin babbling, combining consonants and vowels (e.g., "ba-ba" or "da-da"); babbling becomes more language-specific.
• Phonological development sets the foundation for word learning and later grammar use.

Lexical and Syntactic Development

Lexical development:

• Involves learning words and building a vocabulary.
  • Infants say their first words around 12 months old.
  • Vocabulary explosion between 18 and 24 months, learning up to 10 new words a day.
  • Use nouns most frequently at first (e.g., "mama", "ball"), later expanding to verbs, adjectives, and other word classes.

Syntactic development:

• Refers to learning how words are combined to form sentences.
  • Around 18-24 months, children begin combining two words in meaningful ways ("want juice", "daddy go").
  • By age 3, children use more complex sentence structures with correct word order, plurals, and some verb tenses.
  • As they grow, they develop a deeper understanding of syntax rules, including questions, negatives, and passive constructions.

The Role of Caregivers in Language Acquisition

• Caregivers play a crucial role in first language acquisition:
  • Infant-directed speech (IDS) or "motherese" is common: a high-pitched, exaggerated, slower form of speech.
  • Caregivers respond to babbling, repeat and expand on children's speech, and model correct forms, creating a feedback loop.
  • Joint attention (e.g., both child and caregiver focusing on a toy while naming it) helps children link words with meanings.
  • Social interaction is key: the more language-rich and responsive the environment, the better a child's language development tends to be.

Early Multiword Speech and Word Combinations

• Around age 2, children begin producing multiword utterances, a sign of developing grammar:
  • These combinations often follow simple structures—called telegraphic speech—like "want cookie" or "go park".
  • Children begin using word order to express meaning (subject-verb-object).
  • They also start to use function words (like "in", "on", "is") and inflections (like "-ing", "-s") as they experiment with more complex sentences.
  • These early combinations reflect a growing understanding of syntax and semantics, even before mastery.