JH

Comprehensive Study Notes: Covenant, Trade, Revolution, and Religion in Colonial British America (1651–early Enlightenment)

  • 1651 First Navigation Act: no king at the moment; Oliver Cromwell’s regime in control; act requires colonial trade with North American British colonies to use British ships only.

    • Trade pattern: raw goods from colonies go to Britain; manufactured goods return to colonies; slaves traded to Africa (triangular trade). Core idea: British ships only for colonial trade.
    • Purpose and strategy: hurt Dutch remittances by restricting shipping to British ships, thereby increasing British revenue and diminishing Dutch competition.
    • Economic consequences for colonies: likely higher costs due to limited shipping options; potential price inflation when England controls shipping and pricing.
    • Question to students: why mandate British ships? (To benefit England/mercantilism, hurt rivals like the Dutch, and centralize revenue.)
    • Note: by 1664, New York and New Jersey were seized by England from the Dutch; ties into mercantilist consolidation.
    • N.B. 90% of colonial trade originated in New England, so merchants in Massachusetts/Boston would feel the impact most acutely.

  • Mercantilism vs capitalism (contextual tie-in): mercantilism prioritizes control of trade and central pricing by the mother country; capitalism favors open competition and price competition, which would ostensibly lower prices but under mercantilist rules is suppressed.

  • 1660 Second Navigation Act: enumerated goods (notably tobacco) to be sold only to England; effectively creates a monopoly for England on key colonial commodities.

    • Implication for Virginia/Maryland tobacco planters: could not sell to Spain, Dutch, Portuguese, etc.; England sets the price; reduced colonial revenue as competition is eliminated.
    • Contrast with free market capitalism: in a free market, tobacco would be bid among multiple buyers (England, Spain, Dutch, etc.), potentially raising prices for producers.

  • 1663 Third Navigation Act: all trade between colonies and foreign nations must go through England first for taxation.

    • Effect: adds delay and higher costs; direct trade with foreign powers becomes more expensive and slower; increases colonial resentment.

  • Colonial geography and early resistance context

    • 1664: New York and New Jersey taken from the Dutch; underscores shift toward English mercantile control of Atlantic trade.

  • Massachusetts’ resistance and the Dominion of New England (late 1680s)

    • 1685: Charles II dies; James II (a Catholic monarch) ascends; he revokes colonial charters (including Massachusetts); James II attempts to consolidate New England into a Dominion and appoint Edmund Andros as governor.
    • Dominion of New England: centralized authority over MA, CT, RI, NH; undermines colonial self-government.
    • 1688 Glorious Revolution: James II abdicates in favor of Mary II and William III; Parliament supports overthrow without bloodshed; power shift back to a more parliamentary framework.
    • Aftermath: James II’s decrees nullified; the Dominion dissolves; New England charters restored; Andros arrested; royal charters reissued.
    • Political significance: demonstrates evolving limits on the divine-right monarchy; sets a precedent for the idea that rulers can be removed without violence if they threaten constitutional governance.

  • John Locke and the Enlightenment (precursor to the American Revolution)

    • Locke’s ideas influenced ideas about government, rights, and consent of the governed; his writings foreshadow the political philosophy behind the U.S. Declaration of Independence.
    • Link to later discussions: Locke’s emphasis on natural rights and government by consent informs the colonial rhetoric for independence.

Early Colonial Exploration and Settlements (Texas, Louisiana, New Mexico, and Spanish Frontiers)

  • La Salle and the French claim on the Gulf coast

    • Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explored the Mississippi River to reach the Gulf; he believed the mouth of the Mississippi was near present-day Victoria, Texas and aimed for New Orleans.
    • Expedition details (rough): three ships; one seized by pirates (Caribbean); one sank in Matagorda Bay; the third arrived with settlers and then returned to France.
    • Fort St. Louis established near Victoria, TX; about 180 settlers landed; La Salle misread geography and failed to reach the Mississippi Delta.
    • Aftermath: conflict and tragedy—the expedition faced hostility from Karankawa Indians; a pregnant woman gave birth there; the infant was killed by Karankawa; the settlement collapsed, many settlers killed or enslaved.
    • Spanish response: Spain had claimed Texas for centuries; after French attempts, Spain strengthened presence with settlements at San Antonio (1718) and Nacogdoches (1716) to repel French claims.

  • New Spain frontier: San Antonio and Nacogdoches settlements

    • San Antonio founded around 1718; Nacogdoches around 1716.
    • Settlement outcomes: severe challenges, including high infant mortality (e.g., in San Antonio, eighteenth-century infant mortality approximately 1 in 3 died by age 2), disease, climate, and resistance from Indigenous peoples.

  • New Mexico and the Indigenous frontier

    • Santa Fe established by 1610; Pueblo peoples interacted with settlers.
    • Apaches, Comanche, and Navajo conflicts; Indigenous groups frequently raided and resisted encroachment.
    • Dependency on cattle and buffalo hunting; Apaches/Comanche traditionally valued hunting buffalo; by the 19th century, bison decline due to overhunting by settlers.

  • The Louisiana frontier and Spanish expansion

    • French exploration and the Mississippi River route culminated in settlement patterns along the Gulf Coast: Biloxi (first), Mobile (present-day Alabama), and New Orleans (Louisiana).
    • The Louisiana Territory’s early governance and the shifting claims among France, Spain, and later the United States set up future diplomatic tensions, particularly around land claims up the Mississippi River.

  • Louisiana Territory and territorial claims in the era

    • The Mississippi River route and the Louisiana Territory would later complicate U.S. expansion after the American Revolution, as the U.S. would claim lands up to the Mississippi River while European powers maintained adjacent claims.

  • Spanish settlement in the Southwest and the broader colonial context

    • New Mexico and Texas frontier dynamics illustrate competition among European powers in North America and the long-term legacy for state borders and demographics.

  • Population notes and cross-regional comparisons (colonial population trends)

    • Chesapeake (Virginia/Maryland) vs New England (Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire)
    • 1650 population estimates:
    • New England: roughly |N_{NE}(1650)| \approx 20{,}000
    • Chesapeake: roughly |C(1650)| \approx 20{,}000
    • 1700 population estimates:
    • New England: roughly |N_{NE}(1700)| \approx 90{,}000
    • Chesapeake: roughly |C(1700)| \approx 70{,}000
    • Implication: populations grew in both regions but with different settlement patterns and economic drivers; by 1700, populations were broadly similar in magnitude but the composition and growth trajectories differed.

  • Demographics and labor systems in Chesapeake vs New England

    • Chesapeake migrants: largely young men (about 75%), many indentured servants; lifespan around ext{life expectancy} \approx 40-42 \,\text{years}, driven by high infant mortality and harsh conditions.
    • Infant mortality in Chesapeake: about ext{infant mortality} \approx 1/4 (25% of babies die before age 2).
    • Women and reproduction: many pregnancies occurred before marriage; resulting infants could become enslaved if born into slavery mid-contract.
    • New England migrants: often came as families; religious motives (Puritans) and the prospect of a community with greater governance and religious liberty; dowries and family stability influenced marriage and childbearing decisions; infant mortality in New England: about ext{infant mortality NE} \approx 1/9 (11%), compared to England’s 1/8 \approx 12.5\%.
    • Life expectancy differences: New England tends to show longer life expectancy; better living conditions, diet, and climate contributed to overall health advantages in some periods.
    • Health explanations: in NE, lower population density and winter isolation reduced some communicable disease pressures; in Chesapeake, crowded conditions and malnutrition affected health; living conditions and medical understandings were guided by Galenic theory (four humors).

  • Medicine and the four humors (Galen) and early medical practice

    • Four humors: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood; health is achieved when these are in balance.
    • Illness symptoms interpreted as imbalances; treatments included bloodletting and leeching to rebalance humors.
    • Example attached to colonial medicine: bloodletting used widely; George Washington reportedly died after extensive bloodletting (late 18th century).
    • Barber-surgeons and midwives played roles in medical care; medical practices often integrated with barbering and other trades.

  • Slavery and slave codes (development in the British colonies)

    • Transition from indentured servitude to racialized slavery due to economic factors (cost of capturing, maintaining, and eventually freeing indentured servants vs enslaved labor).
    • Slave codes emerge especially in the mid- to late-17th century; codified laws that defined enslaved status and property rights.
    • Example (from 1705 code):
    • "All Servants imported and brought into the Province, who were not Christians in their native country shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro and the lotto and Indian slaves within the dominion shall be held to be real estate, property." \text{(slave codes excerpt)}
    • Consequences: enslaved people treated as property; limited or no legal protection; resistance and punishment reinforced the system.
    • Connection to constitutional framework: the later U.S. Constitution recognizes private property rights; the Bill of Rights protects property; this created an ongoing tension about emancipation and the legitimacy of slavery in constitutional terms.
    • Note: a humorous aside about the ethics of animal treatment and public figures was included in the transcript but does not alter the legal/political context of slave codes.

  • Early anti-Catholic sentiment and immigration

    • The late 17th and early 18th centuries saw large waves of non-English Protestants entering British colonies: Huguenots (French Calvinists), Pennsylvania Dutch (German Lutherans and Anabaptists like Amish/Mennonites), Scottish and Irish Presbyterians, and others fleeing Catholic central Europe.
    • Pennsylvania Dutch: actually German (Deutsch) settlers misnamed as Dutch by English observers; groups include Amish and Mennonites; these communities reinforced Protestant religious identity.
    • The influx of Protestant refugees contributed to anti-Catholic sentiment in the colonies, shaping social and political attitudes.
    • Note on later history: JFK (1960) becomes the first Catholic president of the United States; anti-Catholic sentiment in colonial times extended into American political culture but evolved as Catholic leadership in the U.S. grew in later centuries.

  • The First Great Awakening and religious revival in the colonies

    • Emergence of a more emotional, revivalist form of Protestant worship, partly as a response to Enlightenment rationalism and deism.
    • Deism (the belief in a non-interventionist, clockmaker God) gains some popularity, particularly among intellectuals, leading to tension with traditional religious authority.
    • Notable figures: Jonathan Edwards (American) and George Whitefield (British) as prominent preachers and revivalists.
    • Impact on education: growth of religious higher education institutions—colleges founded during colonial America largely tied to religious groups:
    • Harvard (1636)
    • William & Mary (1693)
    • Yale (1701)
    • Princeton (originally the College of New Jersey, 1746)
    • King's College (now Columbia, founded 1754)
    • Relationship between church and education: the church and family were primary agents of education in colonial America; state institutions for schooling were minimal or non-existent early on; the Great Awakening contributed to the establishment of additional colleges and a broader emphasis on literacy for religious purposes.

  • Summary: connections and implications for later American development

    • The Navigation Acts and mercantilist policies helped shape colonial economic dependencies on Britain, generating resentment that fed into revolutionary thought.
    • The Dominion of New England and the Glorious Revolution highlighted tensions between monarchy, parliament, and colonial governance, foreshadowing ideas of consent of the governed and legislated authority.
    • Population growth and labor structures (indentured servitude transitioning to slavery) affected social dynamics, class relations, and political tensions within colonies.
    • Religious diversity and conflict (Puritans in NE, Anglican establishment, Huguenot and Protestant refugees) shaped cultural identities and educational institutions, setting foundations for the American emphasis on religious liberty and the eventual push for broader civil liberties.

Key figures and ideas in political philosophy and governance (Enlightenment to Revolution)

  • John Locke (late 17th century)

    • Government’s primary role: protect individual rights—Life, Liberty, and Property.
    • Consent of the governed and social contract as justification for government; if rulers violate natural rights, revolution is a legitimate option.

  • Rousseau and Hobbes (influence on European political thought)

    • Rousseau’s ideas about the general will and the social contract influenced European political reform and revolutionary thought in the 18th century.
    • Hobbes emphasized a strong sovereign to prevent anarchy; these debates informed European governance debates and contrasted with Locke’s more rights-focused framework.

  • Deism and religious revival

    • Deism posits a non-interventionist God; this rational religious stance coexisted with, and sometimes challenged, evangelical revivalism.
    • The Great Awakening brought religious enthusiasm to the fore and linked to the rise of new educational institutions and community organization.

  • Governance implications for the American Revolution

    • Locke’s natural rights theory laid philosophical groundwork for the American Revolution and the framing of the Declaration of Independence.
    • The practical experience of colonial assemblies, William and Mary governance (1689 onward), and the Glorious Revolution provided a blueprint for balancing power between the crown, Parliament, and local colonial governance.
    • The tension between universal rights (Locke) and the protection of the masses (Rousseau) would later shape debates on whose rights are protected in the new republic and how government power should be exercised.

Short notes on some quantitative details and dates (quick reference)

  • Navigation Acts and dates

    • First Navigation Act: 1651
    • Second Navigation Act: 1660
    • Third Navigation Act: 1663
    • Dominion of New England established: circa 1686; dissolved in 1689 after Glorious Revolution
    • Glorious Revolution: 1688 (William III and Mary II installed; James II abdicates)

  • Major settlements and exploration dates

    • La Salle’s Fort St. Louis in Texas: circa 1685–1687; near Matagorda Bay (near present-day Victoria, TX)
    • San Antonio settlement: 1718
    • Nacogdoches settlement: 1716
    • Santa Fe settlement: 1610
    • Biloxi (first Louisiana settlement under French claim): mid-1690s; Mobile: early 18th century; New Orleans: 1718–1719

  • Population and life expectancy (approximate)

    • New England population, 1650: ~20{,}000
    • New England population, 1700: ~90{,}000
    • Chesapeake population, 1650: ~20{,}000
    • Chesapeake population, 1700: ~70{,}000
    • Life expectancy (typical for Chesapeake): ext{about } 40-42 \text{years}
    • Infant mortality (Chesapeake): rac{1}{4} = 0.25
    • Infant mortality (New England): rac{1}{9} \approx 0.111

  • Salem Witch Trials (1692)

    • Accused: ~600 individuals; Trials: ~150; Executions: 19 hanged; 7 died in jail awaiting trial; 1 pressed to death (before plea)
    • Key figures: Tituba (Caribbean), Sarah Goode, Sarah Osborne; the “witch” panic was driven by social, religious, and political stressors, not actual witchcraft.

  • Slavery and codes (early 1700s)

    • 1705 Slave Codes: key excerpt above; enslaved people defined as real estate; non-Christians imported as slaves; resistance could be punished severely; legal framework tied to property rights and social control.

  • The Enlightenment and education

    • Colonial colleges founded as religious institutions: Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), William & Mary (1693), Princeton (1746 as College of New Jersey), Columbia (King’s College, 1754).
    • First Great Awakening linked to revivalist figures (Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield) and a surge in religious education and literacy.

  • Immigration and ethnic groups

    • Huguenots, Pennsylvania Dutch (German Lutherans, Amish, Mennonites), Scots-Irish; broad anti-Catholic sentiment in colonial society; religious pluralism shaping early American culture.

  • Miscellaneous and cultural notes

    • The political philosophy debate about whether leaders should be removed or retained if they threaten rights or governance norms.
    • The relationship between religion and education in the colonies laid groundwork for American civic institutions and values.
    • The colonial era’s experience with governance, trade, and religion set patterns that would influence the American Revolution and the framing of the U.S. Constitution.

  • Clarifications and corrections to notes from the transcript

    • The Declaration of Independence explicitly references Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness, not Life, Liberty, and Property (as commonly quoted in Lockean terms). John Locke’s framework emphasizes Life, Liberty, and Property; Jefferson adapts this in the Declaration.
    • The transcript’s vague numbers on some immigration or population trends reflect approximate classroom estimates; the key takeaway is that NE and Chesapeake populations grew substantially from 1650 to 1700 and developed distinct demographic profiles.