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Chapter 5: Conservation: Why Is It Important to Protect Biodiversity?

Introduction

• Pacific salmon: a valuable fish species in decline.

  • US government responses: protections, harvest restrictions, funding projects for recovery.

  • Salmon life cycle: spawn in rivers, die post-spawning, enriching ecosystems with nutrients.

  • Specialized navigation returning to birthplace keeps populations distinct.

5.1 What Is the Status of Earth’s Biodiversity?

1. Extinction Rates

   • Human-induced sixth mass extinction: hundreds to over 10,000 species lost yearly.

     • 10% to 30% of bird, mammal, and amphibian species threatened.

     • Many species extinct before being identified.

   • Conservation focus on biodiversity hotspots.

2. Alteration of Habitats

   • Human habitat changes for agriculture, infrastructure, etc.

   • Habitat fragmentation from roads and developments impairs survival.

3. Overexploitation of Resources

   • Direct overexploitation through hunting/fishing.

     • 3 billion people depend on seafood; modern fishing technologies lead to overharvesting.

4. Introduction of Invasive Species

   • New species can thrive without natural predators.

   • Examples: accidental introductions (rats), deliberate introductions (Australian brush-tailed possum in New Zealand).

   • Potential pathogens from introduced species can devastate natives (cattle in Africa).

5. Effects on Water

   • Dams disrupt fish migration and reduce water volume.

   • Water pollution degrades ecosystem quality.

6. Climate Change

   • Impact on species and ecosystems; polar bears and coral reefs affected.

5.2 Why Protect Biodiversity?

1. Instrumental Value

   • The usefulness of species for food, jobs, etc.

2. Intrinsic Value

   • The inherent value of life regardless of human use, highlighting a duty to protect biodiversity.

3. Ecosystem Health

   • The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: biodiversity loss reduces ecosystem productivity and resilience.

   • Essential for human survival; costs to ecosystems affect future human well-being.

4. Ecosystem Services

   • Services: benefits humans derive from ecosystems.

     • Provisioning: food, water, goods.

     • Regulating: conditions like erosion control, water filtration, pollination.

     • Supporting: conditions for other services, e.g., soil formation, nutrient cycling.

     • Cultural: recreational, aesthetic values enhancing life quality.

5. Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services

   • Value chains: economic integration of goods and market values (World Bank: $624 billion for fisheries).

   • Replacement costs for ecosystem services (e.g., $8 billion for NYC water filtration).

   • Stated preferences: surveys on willingness to pay for ecosystem benefits (e.g., $65/ton for carbon storage).

   • Revealed preferences: estimations based on actions (e.g., Great Barrier Reef valued over $1 billion).

   • 1997 estimate: eco-services across 16 biomes valued at $33 trillion.

6. Criticisms of Ecosystem Services Approach

   • Economic valuation may not suffice; intrinsic value arguments.

   • Ecosystem functions not always beneficial to humans (disease spread).

   • Desire for artificial substitutes can reduce protection motivations.

5.3 What Are Protected Areas?

1. Definition

   • Areas regulated to protect ecosystems from certain human activities.

2. National Parks

   • Scenic/historic significance; examples include Yellowstone (first NP) providing habitat for unique species.

   • Designated for recreation and preservation, albeit past harm through predator management.

3. Federal Land Management

   • US federal government owns and manages 28% of land.

   • Includes wildlife refuges, forests, and other protected areas.

4. National Parks, Monuments, and Recreation Areas

   • National Park Service administration since 1916 for over 400 parks.

   • Legislation for park establishment requires congressional approval.

5. National Wildlife Refuges

   • US Fish and Wildlife Service manages 560 refuges for conservation.

   • Established first refuge in 1903; some recreational use allowed under compatibility rules.

6. National Forests

   • Managed by US Forest Service since 1905 for multiple uses, including conservation.

   • New regulations in the 1960s emphasize recreation and conservation.

7. The Bureau of Land Management

   • Manages vast lands primarily for grazing and mining; requires balanced use.

8. Wilderness Areas & Wild and Scenic Rivers

   • National Wilderness Preservation System protecting 750 wilderness areas.

   • National Wild and Scenic Rivers System safeguards 2,500 miles of river.

9. Aquatic and Marine Areas

   • National lakeshores/seashores protect coastal and marine ecosystems.

10. Global Protected Areas

• Approximately 14% of land, under 1% of oceans protected.

• World Heritage sites recognized for outstanding global value.

5.4 What Are the Limitations of Protected Areas?

1. Isolation Issues

   • Ecological Island Effect: negative impacts of isolated protected habitats.

   • Migration outside park boundaries leads to threats and extirpation.

2. Ecological Island Effect

   • Smaller protected areas see higher extinction; larger areas support more biodiversity.

   • Need buffer zones and wildlife corridors for connectivity.

3. Mismatched Protection Priorities

   • Inadequate protection for critical habitats and uneven biome representation.

4. Human–Wildlife Conflict

   • Livelihood conflicts (e.g., ranchers vs. wolves); need for enforcement and cooperative management.

5. Alternatives to Protection

   • Strategies like land trusts and conservation easements empower private land preservation.

5.5 Can Laws Protect Biodiversity?

1. Significant Legislation

   • Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1819): prohibiting collection of protected species.

   • Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972): framework for protecting marine species.

   • Endangered Species Act (ESA; 1973): far-reaching species protection.

2. ESA Details

   • Illegal to harm endangered species; includes recovery planning and habitat designation.

   • Over 1,600 species listed; critiqued for impacts on human activities.

3. States and International Laws

   • State regulations impact non-listed species; many successful recovery efforts.

   • International agreements like CITES regulate trade and protect ecosystems globally.

5.6 What Can Be Done to Reduce Biodiversity Loss?

1. Sustainable Forest Management

   • Addressing deforestation’s ecosystem threats, particularly in tropical areas.

   • Sustainable practices enhance forest biodiversity and productivity.

2. Grazing and Grassland Management

   • Proper grazing can sustain ecosystem health and biodiversity.

3. Agricultural Biodiversity Protection

   • Integrates biodiversity into agricultural practices, such as hedgerow maintenance.

4. Urbanization and Land-Use Planning

   • Zoning laws manage growth and protect valuable ecosystems.

5.7 What Can Be Done to Fix Damage That Has Already Occurred?

1. Species Reintroduction

   • Example: California condor recovery programs through captive breeding and reintroduction.

2. Ecological Restoration

   • Restoration of ecosystems like the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP).

   • Various funding sources, including governmental and NGO support.

5.8 What Can I Do?

1. Campus Restoration Projects

   • Volunteer collaboration is crucial for project success.

2. Local Biodiversity Awareness

   • Organize or participate in community biodiversity events like a BioBlitz.

3. Conservation Group Involvement

   • Support organizations focused on biodiversity through donations or volunteering.

4. Sustainable Product Choices

   • Purchase products that minimize impact on threatened species.