1.1: The Practice of Political Scientists

Key Terms

• Empirical Data: Information gathered through observation, experimentation, or other forms of data collection.

• Normative Data: Data that represents typical or average performance or behavior within a specific population.

• Quantitative Analysis: The use of mathematical and statistical methods to analyze numerical data.

• Qualitative Analysis: The use of non-numerical data such as interviews, observations, and surveys to analyze and interpret patterns and themes.

• Correlation: A statistical measure that indicates the degree to which two variables are related to each other.

• Positive Correlation: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other variable.

• Negative Correlation: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other variable.

• Causation: A relationship between two variables in which one variable directly influences or causes a change in the other variable.

• Human Development Index (HDI): A composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.

• Gini Index: A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total value of goods and services produced within a country's borders in a given time period.

• Freedom House: An organization that conducts research and advocacy on democracy, political freedom, and human rights.

• Transparency International: An organization that monitors and publicizes corporate and political corruption in international development.

• Failed (or Fragile) States Index: An annual ranking of countries based on their vulnerability to conflict and instability, as well as their capacity to provide basic services and maintain the rule of law.

Core Course Countries

• United Kingdom

  • The UK has a parliamentary system of government with a constitutional monarchy.

  • It is a member of the European Union and has a strong tradition of democracy and rule of law.

• Russia

  • Russia has a federal semi-presidential republic system of government.

  • It has a strong centralized government and a history of authoritarianism.

  • It is also a major player in international politics.

• Iran

  • Iran has an Islamic republic system of government.

  • It is a theocracy with a supreme leader and a president.

  • It has a complex relationship with the international community due to its nuclear program and support for militant groups.

• Mexico

  • Mexico has a federal presidential representative democratic republic system of government.

  • It has a history of corruption and drug violence, but has made progress in recent years towards reform and strengthening its democracy.

• China

  • China has a single-party socialist republic system of government.

  • It has a strong centralized government and a mixed economy.

  • It is also a major player in international politics and has been criticized for its human rights record.

• Nigeria

  • Nigeria has a federal presidential representative democratic republic system of government.

  • It has a history of political instability and corruption, but has made progress in recent years towards reform and strengthening its democracy.

  • It is also a major player in African politics.

The Practice of Political Scientists

• Political scientists: These are professionals who study political systems, behavior, and institutions.

  • They use various methods to analyze and interpret political phenomena, and their work is essential for understanding how governments and societies function.

• Political scientists use a variety of research methods to gather data and analyze political phenomena.

  • Surveys: Political scientists use this to gather information about public opinion, voting behavior, and other political attitudes and behaviors.

  • Interviews: They may conduct this with politicians, government officials, or other experts in the field.

  • Case Studies: Political scientists use these to examine specific political events or phenomena in detail. This method involves analyzing a single case in depth to gain insights into broader political trends.

  • Quantitative Analysis: Political scientists use these to analyze large amounts of data. This approach allows them to identify patterns and trends in political behavior and institutions.

• Political scientists study a wide range of topics related to politics and government.

  • Political Theory: The study of political ideas and concepts. Political scientists in this field examine the philosophical foundations of political systems and institutions.

  • Comparative Politics: The study of different political systems and institutions around the world. Political scientists in this field compare and contrast different political systems to identify similarities and differences.

  • International Relations: The study of the relationships between different countries and the ways in which they interact with each other. Political scientists in this field examine issues such as diplomacy, war, and trade.

  • Public Policy: The study of how governments make decisions and implement policies. Political scientists in this field examine the ways in which policies are created and how they affect society.

1.2: Defining Political Institutions

Key Terms

• Political Systems: Refers to the set of institutions, laws, and procedures that are used to govern a country or a group of people. It includes the distribution of power, decision-making processes, and the relationship between the government and its citizens.

• States: A political entity that has a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the ability to enter into relations with other states.

• Regime: Refers to the set of rules, institutions, and practices that govern a country or a political system. It includes the type of government, the distribution of power, and the relationship between the government and its citizens.

• Government: Refers to the group of people who are responsible for making and enforcing laws and policies in a country or a political system. It includes the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

• Nation: Refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language, history, or identity. It can also refer to a political entity that is based on a shared sense of identity.

Institution Examples

1.3: Democracy vs. Authoritarianism

Key Characteristics

• Democracy

  • Power is held by the people through free and fair elections

  • Protection of individual rights and freedoms

  • Rule of law and independent judiciary

  • Transparency and accountability in government

  • Civil society and freedom of the press

• Authoritarianism

  • Power is held by a single leader or small group

  • Limited or no protection of individual rights and freedoms

  • Rule by force or coercion

  • Lack of transparency and accountability in government

  • Suppression of civil society and freedom of the press

Types of Authoritarian Regimes

1. Monarchies: These are regimes in which power is held by a hereditary monarch or royal family. Examples include Saudi Arabia and Brunei.

2. Military Juntas: These are regimes in which power is held by a group of military officers who have seized control of the government. Examples include Myanmar and Egypt.

3. Single-Party States: These are regimes in which power is held by a single political party that controls all aspects of government. Examples include China and North Korea.

4. Personalist Regimes: These are regimes in which power is held by a single individual who dominates the political system. Examples include Russia under Vladimir Putin and Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdogan.

5. Theocracies: These are regimes in which power is held by religious leaders or institutions. Examples include Iran and Saudi Arabia.

6. Hybrid Regimes: These are regimes that combine elements of authoritarianism and democracy. Examples include Russia and Venezuela.

Types of Democratic Regimes

• Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which citizens directly participate in the decision-making process. This is typically done through referendums or other forms of direct voting.

• Representative democracy: A form of democracy in which citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common form of democracy in the world.

• Presidential democracy: A form of democracy in which the president is both the head of state and the head of government. The president is elected by the people and has significant powers, including the power to veto legislation.

• Parliamentary democracy: A form of democracy in which the parliament is the primary decision-making body. The prime minister is the head of government, while the monarch or president is the head of state.

• Semi-presidential democracy: A form of democracy in which the president and prime minister share power. The president is the head of state, while the prime minister is the head of government.

• Consensus democracy: A form of democracy in which decisions are made through consensus rather than majority vote. This is often used in countries with diverse populations or in situations where there is a need for compromise.

• Hybrid democracy: A form of democracy that combines elements of different types of democratic regimes. This is often seen in countries that are transitioning from authoritarianism to democracy.

1.4: Democratization

• Democratization: The process of transitioning a government from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one.

• It involves the establishment of democratic institutions, such as free and fair elections, an independent judiciary, and a free press.

• It is a complex and often difficult process that can take many years to achieve.

Characteristics of Democracy

• Popular Sovereignty: The ultimate power lies with the people who elect their representatives to govern them.

• Free and Fair Elections: Elections are conducted in a free and fair manner, where every citizen has the right to vote and contest elections.

• Rule of Law: The government is bound by the law and is accountable to the people. No one is above the law, including the government.

• Protection of Individual Rights: Democracy ensures the protection of individual rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, religion, and association.

• Separation of Powers: The government is divided into three branches - the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary - to ensure a system of checks and balances.

• Independent Judiciary: The judiciary is independent of the other branches of government and ensures that the law is upheld.

• Civilian Control of the Military: The military is subordinate to civilian authority and does not interfere in the political process.

• Transparency and Accountability: The government is transparent in its actions and accountable to the people for its decisions.

• Pluralism and Diversity: Democracy respects and values diversity and pluralism, including diversity of opinions, beliefs, and cultures.

• Active Citizen Participation: Democracy encourages active citizen participation in the political process, including the right to protest and petition the government.

Factors that contribute to democratization

• Economic development: Countries with higher levels of economic development are more likely to democratize. This is because economic growth creates a middle class that demands greater political representation and accountability.

• International pressure: International organizations and other countries can exert pressure on authoritarian regimes to democratize. This can take the form of economic sanctions, diplomatic isolation, or military intervention.

• Civil society: A strong civil society can help to promote democratization by advocating for political reform and holding governments accountable.

Challenges to democratization

• Elite resistance: The ruling elite may resist democratization because it threatens their power and privileges.

• Ethnic and religious divisions: Countries with deep ethnic or religious divisions may struggle to establish a democratic system that is inclusive and representative of all groups.

• Weak institutions: Democratization requires the establishment of strong democratic institutions, such as an independent judiciary and a free press. However, in many countries, these institutions are weak or non-existent.

Democracy: Advancements and Regression

• Advancements

  • Expansion of Suffrage: The right to vote has been extended to more people over time. Initially, only white male property owners could vote, but now, women, minorities, and non-property owners can also vote.

  • Protection of Civil Liberties: Democracies have made significant progress in protecting civil liberties such as freedom of speech, press, and religion. These liberties are essential for the functioning of a democratic society.

  • Transparency and Accountability: Democracies have become more transparent and accountable. Governments are expected to be open about their actions, and citizens have the right to access information. Additionally, governments are held accountable through elections and other mechanisms.

• Regression

  • Erosion of Civil Liberties: In some countries, civil liberties have been eroded, and the government has become more authoritarian. This can be seen in the restriction of freedom of speech, press, and assembly.

  • Corruption: Corruption is a significant problem in some democracies. It undermines the legitimacy of the government and reduces public trust in democratic institutions.

  • Rise of Populism: Populism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests of the common people over those of the elites. While populism can be a positive force in democracy, it can also lead to the erosion of democratic institutions and the concentration of power in the hands of a few.

Democratic Waves

• Democratic waves: Refer to the periods in history when there is a significant increase in the number of countries that transition to democracy.

• These waves are characterized by a sudden and widespread shift towards democratic governance, often following a period of authoritarian rule.

• Democratic waves are often triggered by a major event, such as the collapse of a dictatorship or the end of a war.

• They are characterized by a rapid increase in the number of countries that transition to democracy.

• Democratic waves tend to be regional in nature, with neighboring countries often following the lead of one another.

• They are often accompanied by a rise in civil society activism and the emergence of new political parties.

First Democratic Wave (1828-1926)

• The first wave of democratization occurred in the 19th century and early 20th century.

• It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Europe and North America.

• The first wave ended with the rise of fascism and communism in the 1920s and 1930s.

Second Democratic Wave (1943-1962)

• The second wave of democratization occurred after World War II.

• It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Western Europe and Japan.

• The second wave ended with the rise of military dictatorships in Latin America and elsewhere.

Third Democratic Wave (1974-2006)

• The third wave of democratization occurred in the 1970s and 1980s.

• It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Southern Europe, Latin America, and parts of Asia and Africa.

• The third wave ended with the rise of authoritarianism in Russia and other countries.

1.5: Sources of and Changes in Power and Authority

Brief History of Each Course Country

• United Kingdom

  • The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy.

  • Its political system has evolved over centuries, with the monarch's role becoming largely ceremonial and the Prime Minister and Parliament holding most of the power.

• Mexico

  • Mexico is a federal presidential representative democratic republic.

  • Its current political system was established in 1917 with the adoption of the Mexican Constitution, which created a federal system of government with three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

• Nigeria

  • Nigeria is a federal presidential representative democratic republic.

  • Its current political system was established in 1999 with the adoption of the Nigerian Constitution, which created a federal system of government with three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

• China

  • China is a one-party socialist state, with the Communist Party of China holding a monopoly on political power.

  • The country's political system is based on a combination of Marxist-Leninist ideology and traditional Chinese political culture.

• Iran

  • Iran is an Islamic republic with a theocratic political system.

  • The country's political system is based on the principles of Shia Islam, with ultimate authority vested in the Supreme Leader, who is the highest-ranking political and religious figure in the country.

• Russia

  • Russia is a federal semi-presidential republic. Its current political system was established in 1993 with the adoption of the Russian Constitution, which created a federal system of government with three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

  • The President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

The Different Sources of Power

• Constitution

  • A set of fundamental principles and rules that govern a country or organization.

  • It serves as a source of power in politics by establishing the framework for the distribution of power and the protection of individual rights.

  • For example, the United States Constitution outlines the separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, and guarantees certain rights such as freedom of speech and religion.

• Religion

  • A system of beliefs and practices concerning the nature of the divine and the purpose of human existence.

  • It serves as a source of power in politics by influencing the values and beliefs of individuals and communities, and by providing a basis for moral and ethical decision-making.

  • For example, the Catholic Church has historically wielded significant political power in countries such as Italy and Spain, and religious groups have played a role in shaping policies on issues such as abortion and same-sex marriage.

• Military Forces

  • Organized groups of armed individuals who are trained to defend a country or organization.

  • They serve as a source of power in politics by providing a means of coercion and defense, and by influencing foreign policy decisions.

  • For example, the United States military is one of the most powerful in the world, and its actions have had significant political consequences in conflicts such as the Vietnam War and the Iraq War.

• Legislature

  • A governing body responsible for making laws and policies.

  • It serves as a source of power in politics by representing the interests of different groups within a society, and by providing a means of checks and balances on the power of other branches of government.

  • For example, the British Parliament is composed of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, and is responsible for passing laws and holding the government accountable.

• Popular Support

  • The level of public approval or endorsement for a particular political leader, party, or policy.

  • It serves as a source of power in politics by providing legitimacy and a mandate for action, and by influencing the outcomes of elections and other political processes.

  • For example, the election of Barack Obama as President of the United States in 2008 was largely due to his ability to mobilize popular support among young people and minority groups.

Changes in Source of Power

• United Kingdom

  • Historically, the source of power in the UK has been the monarchy.

  • However, over time, power has shifted to the elected government, particularly the Prime Minister and their cabinet.

  • The UK operates as a parliamentary democracy, with power ultimately resting with the people through their elected representatives.

• Russia

  • In Russia, power has historically been concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite, whether it be the Tsar, Communist Party, or current President Vladimir Putin.

  • Putin has centralized power in the presidency, with the parliament and judiciary largely subservient to his rule.

  • Critics argue that Putin's regime is authoritarian and undemocratic.

• China

  • In China, power is held by the Communist Party, with the General Secretary serving as the most powerful figure.

  • The National People's Congress serves as the country's top legislative body, but its power is largely symbolic.

  • Critics argue that China's one-party system is undemocratic and suppresses dissent.

• Iran

  • In Iran, power is held by the Supreme Leader, who is appointed for life and serves as the highest authority in the country.

  • The President and parliament also hold significant power, but ultimately defer to the Supreme Leader.

  • Critics argue that Iran's system is undemocratic and suppresses dissent.

• Mexico

  • In Mexico, power is held by the President, who serves as both the head of state and government.

  • The country operates as a federal republic, with power also held by the legislature and judiciary.

  • Critics argue that corruption and violence have undermined Mexico's democratic institutions.

• Nigeria

  • In Nigeria, power is held by the President, who serves as both the head of state and government.

  • The country operates as a federal republic, with power also held by the legislature and judiciary.

  • Critics argue that corruption and ethnic tensions have undermined Nigeria's democratic institutions.

1.6: Federal and Unitary Systems

Federal System

• A federal system is a type of government where power is divided between a central government and smaller regional governments.

• In a federal system, the central government has limited power and the regional governments have more autonomy.

• Examples of countries with a federal system include the United States, Canada, and Australia.

Benefits of a Federal System

• Promotes Local Autonomy: In a federal system, power is shared between the central government and the states. This allows for local autonomy, which means that states can make decisions that are best suited for their citizens.

• Encourages Diversity: A federal system allows for diversity in governance. States can experiment with different policies and laws, which can lead to innovation and progress.

• Reduces the Risk of Tyranny: A federal system reduces the risk of tyranny by limiting the power of the central government. The states act as a check on the power of the central government, which prevents it from becoming too powerful.

• Increases Citizen Participation: A federal system encourages citizen participation in government. Citizens can participate in both state and federal elections, which gives them a greater voice in the political process.

• Provides for Efficient Governance: A federal system allows for efficient governance. The central government can focus on issues that affect the entire country, while the states can focus on issues that are specific to their region.

Unitary System

• A unitary system is a type of government where power is centralized in a single national government.

• In a unitary system, the national government has complete control over all aspects of government and can delegate power to regional governments as it sees fit.

• Examples of countries with a unitary system include France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

Benefits of a Unitary System

• Efficient governance: A unitary system allows for efficient governance as all decisions are made by a single governing body. This eliminates the need for coordination between different levels of government, which can often lead to delays and inefficiencies.

• Uniformity: A unitary system ensures uniformity in laws and policies across the country. This is because the national government has the power to make and enforce laws that are applicable to all regions.

• Flexibility: A unitary system allows for greater flexibility in responding to crises and emergencies. The national government can quickly mobilize resources and take action without having to wait for approval from lower levels of government.

• Cost-effective: A unitary system can be more cost-effective than a federal system as there is no duplication of services or resources. This is because the national government is responsible for providing all essential services.

• Greater accountability: A unitary system ensures greater accountability as the national government is responsible for all decisions and actions. This makes it easier for citizens to hold their government accountable for its actions.

Key Differences

• In a federal system, power is shared between the central and regional governments, while in a unitary system, power is centralized in the national government.

• In a federal system, regional governments have more autonomy and can make decisions on certain issues, while in a unitary system, regional governments have limited power and can only make decisions delegated to them by the national government.

• Federal systems are often used in countries with diverse populations and regions, while unitary systems are often used in countries with a more homogenous population.

1.7: Political Legitimacy

• Political legitimacy: The acceptance of the authority of a government or governing body by the people it governs. It is the belief that the government has the right to rule and that its actions are justified.

• Traditional legitimacy: Based on the belief that the government has the right to rule because it has always done so. This is often associated with monarchies and other hereditary systems.

• Charismatic legitimacy: Based on the personal qualities of a leader, such as their charisma, vision, or ability to inspire. This is often associated with revolutionary or populist movements.

• Rational-legal legitimacy: Based on the belief that the government has the right to rule because it was established through a legal process, such as a constitution or election. This is often associated with modern democracies.

1.8: Sustaining Legitimacy

• Good governance: It is the foundation of legitimacy. A government that is transparent, accountable, and responsive to the needs of its citizens is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. It involves the rule of law, respect for human rights, and the provision of basic services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure.

• Economic development: It is another critical factor in sustaining legitimacy. A government that can provide jobs, reduce poverty, and improve the standard of living of its citizens is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. Economic development requires investment in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, as well as the creation of an enabling environment for businesses to thrive.

• Political participation: This is essential for sustaining legitimacy. A government that allows citizens to participate in decision-making, holds free and fair elections, and respects the rights of opposition parties is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. Political participation also involves the protection of civil society organizations and the media.

• Communication: This is crucial for sustaining legitimacy. A government that communicates its policies and decisions clearly and honestly to its citizens is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. Communication involves engaging with citizens through various channels, including social media, town hall meetings, and public consultations.

• Accountability: Finally, accountability is essential for sustaining legitimacy. A government that is accountable to its citizens for its actions and decisions is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. Accountability involves the establishment of independent institutions such as the judiciary, the auditor general's office, and the ombudsman to hold the government accountable.

Losing Legitimacy

• Legitimacy is the belief of the people that the government has the right to rule. When a government loses legitimacy, it means that the people no longer believe that it has the right to govern.

• This can happen for various reasons, including:

  • Corruption: When the government officials are involved in corrupt practices, such as embezzlement, bribery, or nepotism, it can erode the trust of the people in the government.

  • Incompetence: When the government fails to deliver basic services, such as healthcare, education, or infrastructure, it can lead to frustration and anger among the people.

  • Violations of human rights: When the government violates the basic human rights of its citizens, such as freedom of speech, assembly, or religion, it can lead to protests and civil unrest.

  • Election fraud: When the government manipulates the election process, such as rigging the votes or suppressing the opposition, it can undermine the legitimacy of the government.

• The consequences of losing legitimacy can be severe. It can lead to protests, strikes, and even violent uprisings. It can also lead to a loss of international support and aid, which can further weaken the government's ability to govern.

1.9: Political Stability

• Political stability: The ability of a government to maintain its power and control over a country without facing any significant internal or external threats. It is an essential factor for the economic and social development of a nation.

Importance of Political Stability

• Political stability is crucial for a country's economic growth and development. It creates a favorable environment for businesses to invest and operate, which leads to job creation and increased economic activity. It also helps to maintain social order and security, which is essential for the well-being of citizens.

Factors Affecting Political Stability

• Economic Factors

  • High unemployment rates

  • Inflation

  • Income inequality

  • Poverty

  • Corruption

• Social Factors

  • Ethnic and religious tensions

  • Political polarization

  • Social inequality

  • Lack of access to education and healthcare

• Environmental Factors

  • Natural disasters

  • Climate change

  • Environmental degradation

Role of Government

• The government must ensure that it provides basic services to its citizens, such as education, healthcare, and security.

• It must also create an environment that promotes economic growth and development, which can reduce poverty and unemployment rates.

• The government must be transparent and accountable to its citizens, and it must address corruption and other forms of malfeasance.

International Relations

• International relations can also affect political stability.

• Countries that have strong diplomatic ties and trade relationships with other nations are more likely to be politically stable.

• Conversely, countries that are isolated or have strained relationships with other nations may experience political instability.

• International conflicts and wars can spill over into neighboring countries, causing political instability and unrest.