Testen und Bewerten im Fremdsprachenunterricht - Einheit 7: Sprache im Kontext II – Grammatik
The Communicative Turn and the Current State of Foreign Language Teaching (FSU)
The Status of Classroom Testing (Quetz, 2008): Despite the communicative turn, experience shows that classroom tests continue to be dominated by the assessment of grammatical structures.
Writing Tasks: From the middle level onwards, formal writing tasks such as summaries (Inhaltsangaben), retellings (Nacherzählungen), and discussions (Erörterungen) are used. Communicative writing with a clear reference to an addressee is rare.
Listening and Speaking: Listening comprehension often plays only a subordinate role in tests. Speaking skills are usually only checked holistically and impressionistically.
Validity: The validity of these "deficient learning status controls" is often low.
Teaching vs. Testing Philosophy: The principle "As you teach so shall you test" (Underhill, 1982) suggests that communicative teaching should be reflected in class tests and oral examinations.
Why Test and Teach Grammar?
Results from Meta-studies (Purpura, 2004; Ellis, 1990; Norris & Ortega, 2000; Hinkel & Fotos, 2002): * No single teaching method can be recommended as the "best" for grammar. * Learners show the most growth when the focus is on grammatical forms they can handle at their current stage of development. * Instruction with a targeted, explicit, and meaning-oriented focus on grammatical forms leads to increased performance compared to groups with no explicit focus on grammar.
Arguments FOR Teaching/Testing Grammar: * Provides orientation (formative assessment). * Expands possibilities for expression (e.g., active vs. passive voice). * Helps with the time factor (the concept of "noticing"). * Beneficial for analytically oriented learners.
Arguments AGAINST Teaching/Testing Grammar: * Over-focus on "perfect language." * Focus on form rather than meaning. * Rule vs. Reality: Real-world usage often differs from textbook rules. * Acts as a stumbling block for weaker learners or those with learning difficulties.
Historical Paradigms in Language Testing
Pre-scientific Test Paradigm: * Associated with the Grammar-Translation Method. * Grammar knowledge is taught explicitly. * Testing is done in an isolated manner.
Psychometric-Structuralist Test Paradigm: * Associated with the Audiolingual Method. * Grammar is taught implicitly (e.g., through pattern drills). * Testing uses closed formats.
Psycholinguistic-Sociolinguistic Test Paradigm: * Associated with the Communicative Approach. * Language testing is communicative; grammar is checked indirectly through oral and written production. * Linguistic means are checked in context.
Defining the Grammar Construct
Implicit Grammar Knowledge: Involves the morphosyntactic development of the learner's language and automated, procedural usage.
Explicit Grammar Knowledge: Involves the mediation of structures and the understanding, explaining, and practicing of declarative grammar rules.
Lexicogrammar: Viewed as a continuum between a lexical item and a grammatical pattern: * Lewis (1993) states: "Language consists of grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar."
Language Testing Research Compromise: Modern testing is often a mix: partly implicit and partly explicit, procedural and declarative, combined with vocabulary, and utilizing both text-based and discrete items.
Grammar in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR/GERS)
Definition: Grammatical competence is the knowledge of the grammatical means of a language and the ability to use them.
Grammatical Correctness: * Involves the ability to correctly recall "pre-fabricated" expressions and the ability to focus on grammatical forms while articulating thoughts. * Non-linear Development: Correctness does not improve linearly. It often decreases at level because learners begin to use language more independently and creatively. This is reflected in CEFR descriptors.
Institutional and Curricular Foundations
Austrian Curriculum (Mittelschule & AHS-Unterstufe): * Highest weight is placed on vocabulary and grammar in contextualized and networked forms. * Vocabulary should be learned in phrases and sentences. * Function takes precedence over form. * Situational introduction and inductive derivation of grammar from communicative contexts are preferred. * Grammatical subsystems should not become a direct learning goal.
Austrian Curriculum (AHS-Oberstufe): Vocabulary, structures, and idiomatics should be expanded situationally, functionally, and systematically within the context of all skill areas.
Standardized Testing Implementation: * Independent Grammar Component: Aptis (Core), Cambridge English Certificates (Use of English at /), Austrian Reifeprüfung (Language in Context at and ). * Integrated Grammar: DELF/DALF (French), DELE (Spanish), ECL, IELTS (English).
Processability Theory (Pienemann 1998, 2005)
Core Principle: At any developmental stage, a learner can only produce and comprehend linguistic forms that their current language processor can handle.
Psycholinguistic Barriers: There are limits to what can be learned/implemented at a given time (Teachability Hypothesis).
Empirical Study Example (Egger, 2023): * Analysis of the textbook MORE! 1. * Unit 1 introduces structures at Stage 4 (e.g., "I'm", "this is"). * Unit 4 introduces the 3rd person singular (), which is Stage 5. * Results: Only 2 out of 12 interviewed students (5th grade) reached Stage 4. Zero out of 12 reached Stage 5.
Test Formats for "Language in Context" (SiK)
C-Test: * Based on the principle of "reduced redundancy." * Captures general language level. * Structure: 5 texts with 20 to 25 gaps each. * Duration: Maximum 30 minutes. * Knowledge required: Lexical, grammatical, semantic, and orthographic knowledge (holistic competence).
Cloze vs. Gap-fill (Lückentext): * Cloze: Words are removed based on a fixed frequency (e.g., every 7th word). * Gap-fill (Lückentext): Words are removed based on specific pedagogical or linguistic considerations (e.g., targeting prepositions or verb forms).
Response Formats: * Open: Candidates generate the word themselves. * Semi-open: Candidates get a cue (e.g., base verb in brackets) and must form the correct structure (Word Formation). * Closed (Multiple-Choice): Choose from 3-4 options. * Closed (Banked Gap-fill): Choose from a "bank" or "shaking box" of options. The box is often ordered alphabetically to avoid giving away clues.
Word Formation: Covers conjugations, declinations, plurals, and lexis through affixes. Usually, the shorter, more common root of the word family is provided in brackets.
Editing: Involves noticing and correcting grammatical or orthographic errors. (Note: This is no longer part of the Austrian SRDP).
Principles for Task Construction and Evaluation
Text Selection: * Ideal: Natural sounding, authentic sources, reliable authors, matches CEFR listening/reading descriptors. * Avoid: Overly creative texts, outdated language, texts with too many numbers/dates, direct/indirect speech, or heavy use of proper names.
Design Rules: * Include a "lead-in" (first sentence) and "lead-out" (last sentence) without gaps. * Provide a sample item (0) marked in italics. * The target structure should ideally appear only once.
Evaluation: * Score 1 point per correct answer. * Dichotomous evaluation (correct/incorrect). * Maintain objectivity in evaluation but consider plausible alternative answers.
Reflexive Framework for Measuring Competence
When designing grammar assessments, educators should consider:
How essential is the active mastery of the structure for the specific level (-)?
Are the learners developmentally ready (Processability Theory)?
Have the complexities of the task been weighed (selection vs. production)?
Is contextualized/text-based testing possible?
How many items are needed for reliable conclusions?
What weight should grammar have relative to the total result?
Is the information already captured in productive skills (Speaking/Writing) or receptive skills (Listening/Reading)?