Classics Midterm

Troy

• The ancient city in Asia Minor, central to the Trojan War. The city is the setting of much of The Iliad, where the Greek heroes wage war against the Trojans.

Aegean Bronze Age

• The period (approximately 3000–1200 BCE) when the Aegean civilizations thrived, including the Minoans and Mycenaeans. The Iliad takes place during this time.

Mycenaean Civilization

• A late Bronze Age civilization (1600–1100 BCE) known for its palatial cities, warrior culture, and involvement in the Trojan War.

Late Bronze Age Collapse

• The fall of several advanced civilizations, including the Mycenaeans, around 1200 BCE. This collapse is alluded to as the backdrop to the events of the Trojan War.

Greek Dark Ages

• A period following the Bronze Age collapse (c. 1100–800 BCE), characterized by reduced literacy and social complexity. Hesiod’s Works and Days reflects this time of hardship.

Early Iron Age

• The period after the Greek Dark Ages, when iron became the dominant material. This era sets the stage for Hesiod’s work, which reflects the challenges of this transitional time.

EIA Chieftain

• A leader or ruler during the Early Iron Age, a time when societies were often led by tribal chieftains. Similar to Agamemnon in The Iliad, who leads the Greek forces in the Trojan War.

Transformative 8th Century

• The 8th century BCE, a period marked by the formation of the Greek polis (city-state). The Odyssey reflects this societal transformation.

Early Archaic Period

• The period of Greek history from the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, during which city-states and Greek identity began to develop, as reflected in Hesiod’s work.

Aristocrats

• The upper class, often depicted as warriors or landowners. Characters like Agamemnon and Achilles are aristocrats who lead their armies.

Colonization

• The expansion of Greek influence through settlement in new territories, a process that plays a role in the world depicted in The Odyssey, where Odysseus encounters new peoples.

Polis

• A Greek city-state, the fundamental political unit in ancient Greece. In The Odyssey, the concept of home (nostos) relates to the idea of returning to one’s polis.

Trojan War

• The legendary war fought between the Greeks and Trojans, central to The Iliad and the backdrop to The Odyssey.

Homeric Question

• The debate over whether Homer was a real individual and how the epic poems were composed, as both works were likely passed down orally before being written.

Oral Poetry

• A form of poetry passed down through oral tradition, as exemplified by both The Iliad and The Odyssey, which were originally performed orally.

Heroic/Epic Epithet

• A descriptive phrase or title used to characterize a hero, such as “swift-footed Achilles” or “rosy-fingered Dawn.”

Formula

• Repeated phrases or lines used in oral poetry to aid memorization and performance. For example, the repeated use of the epithet for characters like Achilles.

Thersites

• A soldier in the Greek army known for his cowardice and criticism of Agamemnon. He represents the opposite of the heroic ideal.

Agamemnon

• The leader of the Greek forces in the Trojan War, his quarrel with Achilles over Briseis is a central conflict in The Iliad.

Chryses

• A priest of Apollo whose daughter, Chryseis, is captured by the Greeks, leading to a plague that forces Agamemnon to return her.

Chryseis

• The daughter of Chryses, taken as a war prize by Agamemnon, sparking a key conflict in The Iliad.

Briseis

• A woman captured by the Greeks and awarded to Achilles as a prize, whose removal by Agamemnon sparks Achilles’ wrath.

Achilles

• The greatest of the Greek heroes in the Trojan War, whose anger and withdrawal from battle are key themes in The Iliad.

Sarpedon

• A Trojan prince and son of Zeus, he fights bravely in the Trojan War but is ultimately killed by Patroclus.

Diomedes

• A Greek hero known for his bravery and his crucial role in The Iliad, where he wounds the gods Ares and Aphrodite.

Zeus

• The king of the gods, whose decisions impact the course of events in both The Iliad and The Odyssey.

Hera

• The queen of the gods, who actively supports the Greeks in the Trojan War in The Iliad.

Athena

• The goddess of wisdom and warfare, who aids Greek heroes like Odysseus and Achilles.

Ares

• The god of war, often depicted as fighting alongside the Trojans in The Iliad.

Thetis

• Achilles’ mother, a sea goddess, who intervenes on his behalf during the Trojan War.

Helen

• The wife of Menelaus whose abduction by Paris leads to the Trojan War.

Hector

• The greatest Trojan warrior, whose death at the hands of Achilles is a pivotal moment in The Iliad.

Odyssey: Books 1-8

Homecoming (Nostos)

• Definition: The theme of returning home after a long absence, central to Odysseus’ journey. The Odyssey deals extensively with the struggles of homecoming and reintegration into society after the Trojan War.

Disguise and Recognition

• Definition: A recurring motif in The Odyssey, where Odysseus often disguises himself, and his identity is slowly revealed through recognition by family and trusted servants.

Telemachus’ Coming-of-Age

• Definition: Telemachus, Odysseus’ son, matures throughout the poem. Initially a young boy, he gradually steps into his role as an adult, learning responsibility and leadership as he deals with the suitors and seeks news of his father.

Hospitality (Xenia)

• Definition: The Greek concept of hospitality, where hosts are expected to treat guests with respect and provide for them. The suitors violate this code, while characters like Eumaeus embody the ideal of good hospitality.

Gender Roles

• Definition: The Odyssey presents a variety of female characters who influence the story in different ways: Penelope (wife of Odysseus), Circe (goddess), Calypso (nymph), and Eurycleia (servant). Gender expectations shape their actions and interactions.

Divine Intervention

• Definition: The gods in the Odyssey play a crucial role in the events, especially Athena, who supports Odysseus. The gods' whims directly affect Odysseus’ journey, showing the fragility of human agency.

Authority and Government

• Definition: The Odyssey presents an exploration of leadership, particularly regarding the legitimacy of Odysseus’ rule in Ithaca and the tensions over who controls the household in his absence.

Works and Days

Pandora

• Definition: Pandora is the first woman in Greek mythology, created by Zeus. She opens a jar (often called Pandora's box) that releases all evils into the world, leaving only hope behind.

The Ages of Man

• Definition: Hesiod’s account of human history, divided into five races: Gold, Silver, Bronze, Heroes, and Iron. Each race represents a decline in human virtue and happiness, with the current Iron Age being the worst.

Justice and Hard Work

• Definition: A central theme in Works and Days is the importance of living a just and hardworking life. Hesiod emphasizes the value of labor, the avoidance of idleness, and the moral rewards of effort.

The Role of Strife

• Definition: Hesiod distinguishes between two types of Strife: one that is harmful and destructive and one that encourages competition and excellence, suggesting that some conflict can be beneficial if channeled properly.

Agricultural Advice

• Definition: Much of Works and Days is devoted to practical advice for managing a farm, stressing the importance of diligence, timely planting, and respecting the natural rhythms of the land.

Slavery and Social Hierarchy

• Definition: Hesiod’s worldview reflects the hierarchical society of his time, including advice for managing slaves and the roles they play in the household and farming.

Iliad

Honor and Glory (Timē and Kleos)

• Definition: Central concepts in The Iliad, timē refers to honor, especially public recognition for achievements, while kleos refers to glory, particularly the fame that comes after death, often achieved in battle.

The Role of the Gods

• Definition: The gods in The Iliad intervene in mortal affairs, helping or hindering warriors according to their own desires. Their actions reflect the theme of fate and the limitations of human agency.

War and Its Costs

• Definition: The Iliad portrays war as a brutal and destructive force, with characters like Hector and Achilles grappling with the meaning of honor and the human cost of conflict.

Achilles’ Wrath

• Definition: Achilles’ anger is the central theme of The Iliad, particularly his withdrawal from battle after Agamemnon dishonors him. This wrath leads to great losses for both the Greeks and Trojans.

Fate and Free Will

• Definition: The tension between fate and free will is a recurring theme in The Iliad. Characters like Hector and Achilles are often aware of their fates, yet their actions still hold meaning in shaping their stories.

The Trojan War and Homeric Society

Troy and the Trojan War

• Definition: The legendary war between the Greeks and the Trojans, sparked by Paris’ abduction of Helen. Central to both the Iliad and Odyssey, the war has far-reaching consequences for the Greek heroes.

Mycenaean Civilization

• Definition: The Bronze Age civilization (1600-1100 BCE) that preceded the collapse of the palatial society. The Mycenaeans were known for their fortified cities and advanced metalworking, which is reflected in Homer’s descriptions of armor and warfare.

Aristocratic Society

• Definition: In Homer’s time, Greek society was largely aristocratic, with elite warriors and kings (such as Agamemnon and Achilles) holding power. Social stratification was prominent, and status was often tied to military prowess and the spoils of war.

Homeric Heroism

• Definition: Homeric heroes like Achilles, Hector, and Odysseus are often defined by their martial skills and bravery. However, their motivations are complex, with many driven by the pursuit of honor (timē) and glory (kleos), rather than by moral virtue.

Duality of War

• Definition: Homer’s epics explore both the glory and horror of war. While warriors seek honor and glory through battle, they also face the grim realities of death, loss, and the futility of prolonged conflict.

Funeral Games

• Definition: Funeral games were a key cultural practice in ancient Greece, particularly for aristocratic warriors. They were held in honor of deceased heroes, and events like chariot races and boxing were used to display skill and gain renown.

The Role of Fate

• Definition: In Homeric poetry, fate (moira) plays a crucial role in determining the outcomes of battle and life. Even the gods are subject to fate, which shapes the warriors' destinies, especially characters like Achilles who grapple with their fates.

The Concept of Glory (Kleos)

• Definition: Glory earned through heroic deeds in battle is a central concern for Homeric heroes. This glory is seen as a form of immortality, as it ensures that a hero's name will be remembered even after death.

Greek Dark Ages and Early Iron Age

Greek Dark Ages (1100-800 BCE)

• Definition: A period following the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, characterized by depopulation, a loss of writing, and a lack of major centralized political structures. This era is marked by a shift from palatial rule to smaller chieftain-based societies.

The Early Iron Age

• Definition: This period saw the introduction of iron tools and weapons, marking a shift away from the Bronze Age. It was also a time of political fragmentation, with small, decentralized communities replacing the palatial systems of the Mycenaean era.

Polis and the Rise of City-States

• Definition: By the 8th century BCE, Greece saw the rise of the polis (city-state), which became the fundamental political unit in Greek society. These city-states were often ruled by aristocratic elites and became the center of Greek identity and culture.

Colonization and Trade

• Definition: During the 8th century BCE, Greek colonization expanded across the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. This movement was fueled by population growth, economic pressures, and the search for resources and trading opportunities.

The 8th Century Renaissance

• Definition: A period of cultural and political revitalization in Greece, where the growth of city-states, the development of the Greek alphabet, and increased trade marked a shift toward a more complex society. This era saw the beginnings of classical Greek culture.

Hesiod and His Works

Works and Days

• Definition: A didactic poem by Hesiod, offering practical advice for living a good life, focusing on farming, justice, and hard work. The poem is often seen as a reflection of the early Archaic period, contrasting with the more heroic and war-focused Iliad and Odyssey.

Pandora’s Jar

• Definition: In Works and Days, Pandora opens a jar (often called Pandora's box) that releases all of humanity's evils into the world. The only thing left inside the jar is hope, symbolizing the paradox of human existence.

Ages of Man

• Definition: Hesiod describes five successive races of humanity: Gold, Silver, Bronze, Heroes, and Iron. Each race is progressively worse than the last, with the Iron Age being marked by suffering, dishonesty, and hard labor.

Justice and Hard Work

• Definition: Hesiod emphasizes the importance of living justly and working hard to secure prosperity and happiness. His work reflects the values of the growing middle class in early Archaic Greece, advocating for a life of labor and moral integrity.

Strife and Conflict

• Definition: Hesiod discusses two types of strife: one that is destructive and harmful, and one that promotes competition and hard work. He advises his brother Perses to choose the latter, encouraging labor and self-reliance over legal disputes and conflict.

Agriculture and Farming Advice

• Definition: Works and Days is filled with practical advice on farming, including when to sow and reap crops, how to manage the land, and the importance of hard work in securing a successful harvest.

The Trojan War and Homeric Society (Continued)

The Homeric Question

• Definition: The debate surrounding the authorship of Homer’s epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Scholars question whether one person, "Homer," wrote these works or if they were the result of a long oral tradition.

Oral Tradition

• Definition: The method of storytelling used in ancient Greece, where epics like The Iliad and The Odyssey were passed down orally before being written. This tradition influenced the structure, style, and repetition within the poems.

Homeric Epithets

• Definition: Repeated descriptive phrases used to characterize characters, such as “swift-footed Achilles” or “rosy-fingered Dawn.” These epithets are a hallmark of oral poetry, aiding in memorization and performance.

Gerás (Prize of Honor)

• Definition: A physical reward given to warriors, usually in the form of plunder or captives, as recognition of their bravery and status. The distribution of gerás was a public act in the Iliad, emphasizing the importance of honor.

Timé (Honor)

• Definition: The concept of honor in Homeric society, achieved through acts of bravery and valor in battle. Timé is often linked to the receipt of gerás and is central to the motivations of heroes like Achilles.

The Shield of Achilles

• Definition: A famous description of Achilles' shield in The Iliad (Book 18), crafted by Hephaestus. It depicts a detailed image of life and war, symbolizing the complexity and contrast of human existence.

Hesiod and His Works (Continued)

Strife (Eris)

• Definition: The goddess of discord in Greek mythology, representing the harmful type of strife. In Works and Days, Hesiod mentions two types of strife: one that is destructive and harmful and one that encourages competition and hard work.

Kleos (Glory)

• Definition: The concept of eternal glory earned through heroic deeds, especially in battle. Kleos is a central theme in The Iliad, where warriors seek to achieve lasting fame through their actions on the battlefield.

Farming and Practical Wisdom

• Definition: Hesiod offers practical advice on daily life, particularly farming, in Works and Days. His focus on hard work, honest labor, and moral conduct reflects his belief in the virtue of self-reliance and diligence.

Role of Women in Works and Days

• Definition: Women are depicted through Pandora and the roles they play in society. Pandora's creation by Zeus as a curse upon humanity is a central myth, highlighting the perceived negative view of women in Hesiod's time.

Divine Justice and Human Responsibility

• Definition: Hesiod stresses the importance of adhering to divine justice, and the need for humans to live virtuous lives. He emphasizes that a lack of hard work and justice leads to suffering, while working hard with integrity leads to prosperity.

The Ages of Man and the Heroic Race

• Definition: The "Heroic Race," part of Hesiod’s Ages of Man, refers to the generation of demi-gods who fought at Thebes and Troy. Unlike the other races, they are remembered with honor, showing Hesiod's complex view of humanity’s decline.

Greek Dark Ages and Early Iron Age (Expanded)

Seafaring and Maritime Expansion

• Definition: In the 8th century BCE, Greek city-states began to expand through seafaring. This maritime expansion played a crucial role in the development of Greek culture, trade, and colonization across the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

The Role of Chieftains in the Early Iron Age

• Definition: Following the collapse of Mycenaean society, Greek communities were led by charismatic chieftains. These leaders were often warriors who earned their authority through military prowess and religious rituals.

Development of the Polis (City-State)

• Definition: The rise of the polis marked a significant shift in Greek society. City-states became centers of political, economic, and cultural life, with increased urbanization, complex social structures, and legal codes.

The Dark Age Collapse and Its Aftermath

• Definition: After the collapse of the Mycenaean palatial systems, Greece entered the Dark Ages (ca. 1100–800 BCE), marked by a decline in population, loss of writing, and a shift from large urban centers to smaller, village-based societies.

Greek Colonization and Trade Networks

• Definition: By the 8th century BCE, Greek colonization expanded to various regions. The establishment of colonies and trading posts helped spread Greek culture and fostered economic growth through maritime trade.

Miscellaneous Themes from the Presentations

The Role of Fate in Greek Mythology

• Definition: In many Greek myths, including those in the Iliad and Odyssey, fate (moira) is an uncontrollable force that governs the lives of mortals and gods alike, often determining the outcomes of their struggles and endeavors.

The Function of the Gods in The Odyssey

• Definition: The gods in The Odyssey play a significant role in shaping Odysseus' journey, especially Athena, who serves as his divine protector. Their interventions emphasize the tension between divine will and human action.

Slavery and Social Hierarchy

• Definition: Slavery is a recurring theme in both The Iliad and The Odyssey. Slaves, such as Eumaeus in The Odyssey, play vital roles in the households of the elite, providing an essential yet marginalized perspective on ancient Greek society.

Heroism and Honor in Homeric Poetry

• Definition: In Homeric poetry, heroism is often defined by martial prowess and the quest for honor. Characters like Achilles and Hector embody different aspects of heroism, from the pursuit of glory to the responsibility of leadership.