What Activates Motivation and Emotion
1. Causes of Motivation, Emotions, and Drives
Distal Causes:
These are long-term or evolutionary, cultural, and other broader causes influencing emotions and motivation. They explain why humans have the capacity to experience certain states.
Example: Evolutionary predispositions for fear (e.g., fear of snakes or heights) are distal causes because they are part of our inherited traits that helped our ancestors survive.
Proximal Causes:
These refer to the immediate causes of emotional or motivational states—events or processes occurring in the moment that trigger the response.
Example: Seeing a snake on a hiking trail is a proximal cause for fear in the moment, triggering an immediate emotional response based on the threat it poses.
2. Appraisal Theory
Definition: Appraisal is the process of evaluating an event or stimulus in relation to one’s goals, concerns, and well-being, which generates an emotional response.
Example: Seeing an opportunity to give a presentation might trigger excitement if you value public speaking, but anxiety if you fear it.
Role of Appraisal in Emotion:
Emotions are not directly caused by stimuli but by our subjective interpretation of them.
Example: The same event (e.g., encountering a bear) can lead to different emotional responses depending on how the situation is appraised:
Seeing a baby bear in the wild might trigger curiosity or calmness, as it’s seen as non-threatening.
Seeing a large adult bear charging at you would trigger fear, as the threat is evaluated as dangerous.
Key Differences Between Theories (Arnold vs. Lazarus):
Arnold: Cognitive appraisal is the emotion itself. Emotions arise when a situation is appraised as relevant to our goals or values.
Example: A person appraising a job interview as a potential opportunity for career advancement may experience excitement.
Lazarus: Appraisal causes emotions but is not the sole component; emotions also involve physiological and behavioral responses.
Example: In the same job interview, the person might feel both nervous (physiological) and excited (cognitive appraisal), indicating the multifaceted nature of emotions.
3. Body’s Messages in Motivation
Leptin: A hormone produced by fat cells that reduces hunger, signaling adequate energy storage.
Example: After eating a large meal, leptin levels increase, making you feel full and signaling your brain to stop eating.
Ghrelin: A hormone that increases hunger, produced by the stomach and brain.
Example: When you haven’t eaten for several hours, ghrelin levels rise, making you feel hungry and prompting you to look for food.
Interaction: Leptin changes slowly based on fat stores, while ghrelin fluctuates more rapidly depending on fullness, time of day, and psychological state.
Example: If you miss a meal or feel stressed, ghrelin levels might rise rapidly, intensifying your hunger.
4. Instinctive and Habitual Responses
Rooting Reflex: A newborn's instinctual response to touch near the mouth, initiating sucking—critical for feeding.
Example: A baby turning its head and sucking when the corner of its mouth is touched, ensuring it gets nourishment from its mother.
Cue Reactivity: In addiction, exposure to cues associated with previous drug use can trigger cravings and activate dopaminergic reward systems, reinforcing appetitive behavior.
Example: A person recovering from addiction might experience a strong craving upon seeing drug paraphernalia, even if they are not consciously thinking about using drugs.
5. James-Lange and New James-Lange Theories of Emotion
Old James-Lange Theory: Emotions are a result of bodily reactions to stimuli.
Example: You see a snake → Your heart races → You notice your racing heart → You feel fear.
New James-Lange Theory: Emotions are a combination of physiological reactions and cognitive interpretations of the situation.
Example: You see a snake → You think, "That’s dangerous!" → Your heart races → You feel fear.
Evolutionary Perspective: The speed of emotional reactions is critical for survival; quicker appraisals lead to faster responses to threats.
Example: When encountering a threat (like a sudden loud noise), your body reacts immediately (e.g., jumping or heart racing) to prepare you for potential danger.
6. Rapid Emotional Appraisal and Brain Responses
Quick Appraisal: Studies show that the brain can rapidly categorize emotions in less than half a second, such as distinguishing between happy or fearful faces.
Example: When you see a person’s facial expression, your brain can distinguish quickly whether they are happy, angry, or sad, even before you are consciously aware of it.
Unconscious Reactions: Emotional responses (e.g., sweating, trembling) can occur even without conscious awareness of the stimulus.
Example: Briefly viewing a photo of a fearful face can cause sweating, even if you don’t consciously recognize the emotion.
Facial Muscle Activation: Even without conscious attention, seeing emotional expressions triggers facial muscle responses.
Example: Seeing a smiling face can trigger your own smile automatically, even if you're not consciously aware of doing so.
Appraisal and Prior Emotions: Past emotional experiences can influence current emotional appraisals, creating emotional carryover effects.
Example: If you had a bad experience with a colleague before, you may feel uneasy or irritated when interacting with them again, even if no new issues arise.
7. Comparison of Theories and Emotional Responses
Appraisal and Emotion Interaction: Emotions can influence subsequent appraisals, creating a bidirectional relationship where feelings shape our evaluations of future events.
Example: Feeling anxious before an exam might make you appraise the test as more threatening, increasing your anxiety even more.
Rapid Categorization and Emotional Actions: The brain’s rapid classification of stimuli as positive or negative guides emotional actions before the individual is fully aware of the situation.
Example: Upon hearing a loud bang, your brain quickly classifies it as either a threat (causing fear) or a harmless noise (causing curiosity or indifference).
8. Summary of Findings
Complex Interaction: Emotional responses are influenced by both unconscious physiological reactions and conscious thoughts, which work together in complex ways to guide behavior.
Example: You may physically react to a loud noise by jumping, but your interpretation of the situation (e.g., “It’s just a car backfiring”) will determine whether you feel fear, annoyance, or indifference.
Adaptive Function: Emotions help prepare the body to react to potential threats or opportunities, with the evaluation of situations serving an adaptive purpose in preparing appropriate responses.
Example: Feeling fear when encountering a bear activates the fight-or-flight response, which helps prepare your body to either defend itself or flee.
Content of Appraisal
Appraisal is the cognitive process through which an individual evaluates the significance of a stimulus or event in terms of their goals, values, and well-being. This evaluation determines the emotional response to the event. The concept of appraisal is central in understanding how emotions are triggered and experienced, as it is believed that emotions arise from these evaluations rather than being directly caused by external stimuli.
Core Relational Themes
Core Relational Themes (CRTs) are the fundamental emotional experiences linked to specific types of situations. These themes are universal and can trigger distinct emotional responses based on the way a situation is appraised. Lazarus proposed that emotions like anger, fear, and sadness are linked to core relational themes that are adaptive to survival.
Example of Sadness Without a Word for It: A Tahitian man experiences sadness due to his wife’s departure but lacks a specific word for "sadness" in his language. Despite this, he still experiences the physiological and behavioral signs of sadness. His emotional experience is not dependent on language but on the appraisal of loss, showing that core relational themes are universal.
Adaptive Function f CRTs: Core relational themes, like loss (leading to sadness), threat (leading to fear), and goal achievement (leading to happiness), are tied to survival and adaptation. These responses allow individuals to navigate and respond to their environment.
Core Relational Themes vs. Appraisal Dimensions
Core Relational Themes refer to the fundamental emotional themes linked to specific types of events (e.g., sadness linked to loss, fear linked to threat).
Appraisal Dimensions are the specific aspects of a situation that are evaluated during the appraisal process. These dimensions determine the intensity and type of emotion experienced. Examples of appraisal dimensions include:
Goal relevance (Is this event important to me?)
Goal congruence (Does this help or hinder my goals?)
Control (How much control do I have over this situation?)
Certainty (How predictable is the outcome?)
Primary vs. Secondary Appraisal
Primary Appraisal evaluates the relevance and significance of a situation in relation to one’s goals. It involves assessing whether the event is beneficial or harmful, whether it is congruent with personal goals, and the degree of ego-involvement.
Elements of Primary Appraisal:
Goal relevance (Is this event related to my personal goals?)
Goal congruence (Does this help or hinder my goals?)
Ego involvement (How does this affect me personally?)
Secondary Appraisal involves evaluating available coping resources and potential outcomes. It assesses the controllability of the situation, the responsibility of others, and the ability to manage or change the event.
Elements of Secondary Appraisal:
Coping potential (Can I manage or control this situation?)
Control (How much control do I have over the outcome?)
Responsibility (Who is responsible for this situation?)
Categorical vs. Multidimensional Approach to Emotions
Categorical Approach:
Focuses on distinct categories of emotions (e.g., anger, sadness, fear).
Each emotion is linked to a specific core relational theme (e.g., anger linked to injustice, fear linked to threat).
Example: Anger arises from perceived unfairness or harm.
Multidimensional Approach:
Emphasizes dimensions rather than distinct emotions.
Emotions are viewed as continuous experiences that vary along dimensions like valence (pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (intensity of activation).
Example: Emotions are rated along a spectrum (e.g., happiness to sadness, calm to aroused).
Emotion Blend
An emotion blend occurs when multiple emotions are experienced simultaneously. For example, feeling both happiness and sadness during a bittersweet moment. This is common in complex emotional experiences and reflects the overlapping nature of appraisal dimensions.
Is Appraisal Necessary for Emotion?
While many emotions are linked to appraisal, some simpler emotions may arise without conscious appraisal. The mere exposure effect demonstrates that people can develop positive emotions (e.g., liking) towards stimuli they encounter repeatedly, even without actively evaluating the stimulus. However, for more complex emotions, like anger or fear, appraisal plays a critical role in determining the emotional response.
Challenge vs. Threat Appraisal
Challenge Appraisal occurs when a person perceives a situation as demanding but within their ability to handle. It is linked to feelings of excitement or motivation.
Example: A challenging work task might provoke stress but also motivate someone to perform well.
Threat Appraisal occurs when a person perceives a situation as overwhelming and beyond their coping ability, leading to stress and anxiety.
Example: A public speaking event may trigger threat appraisal if someone feels unprepared and incapable.
Universality and Diversity in Emotional Appraisals
Cross-cultural research has found that while core appraisals of emotions (e.g., fairness, control) are universal, cultural differences influence how emotions are experienced and expressed. For example, emotions like fear and joy are recognized across cultures, but the context and social norms surrounding their expression can vary.
Gender differences also influence emotional experiences. Women tend to report higher levels of fear and sadness, while men report more anger. These differences are partly attributed to societal roles and power dynamics, with women often having less societal power.
What Causes Anger?
Core Relational Theme Approach:
Anger arises from the perception of a demeaning offense against oneself or one's group.
It is often triggered by blame, when individuals believe someone else is responsible for a negative event.
Example: If a person feels insulted, they may experience anger depending on how they interpret the intent behind the offense (intentional vs. accidental).
Appraisal Dimension Approach:
Anger arises when a situation is unpleasant, unfair, and unexpected, and involves someone else's actions. It is often associated with situations that are seen as changeable, meaning there is hope for resolution.
Example: Anger may arise from a situation where someone perceives a delay (e.g., in traffic) as unfair and within the control of others.
No-Cognition Approach (Cognitive Neoassociationistic Model):
Anger can also arise from general discomfort or frustration without the need to assign blame. This theory suggests that unpleasant experiences, like heat or pain, can provoke anger even without a specific person to blame.
Example: People may feel angry in hot weather or when dealing with a broken machine, even though no one is directly responsible for the discomfort.
In summary, both appraisal-based theories and non-appraisal approaches like Berkowitz's model provide valuable insights into the causes of anger. Appraisal processes play a significant role in shaping emotional experiences, particularly for complex emotions like anger, but other factors such as discomfort and frustration can also trigger emotional responses without clear attribution.