Exam 2 history
Gregory King- English statistician and demographer known for his work on population estimates and economic projections in the late 17th century. Provided detailed reports on the population and wealth of England, influencing future census practices and economic policies.
The Assembly of Notables (1787)
This assembly was convened by Louis XVI to address financial issues facing France and aimed to include representatives from various social classes, reflecting the economic inequalities of the time. The assembly highlighted the growing discontent among the Third Estate, which ultimately contributed to the revolutionary climate leading up to the French Revolution.
Louis XVI (1774-92)
Despite his initial attempts at reforms, Louis XVI struggled to balance the demands of the nobility and the common people, which further fueled the dissent and calls for change. His indecisiveness and failure to implement effective policies ultimately eroded his support and legitimacy, setting the stage for the challenges to his rule.
Estates General (5 May-16 June 1789)
The Estates General was a pivotal moment in the buildup to the revolution, as it marked the first time in over a century that this assembly was called, demonstrating the urgent need for political reform in France. This gathering brought together representatives from the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners, allowing each to voice their grievances, which would eventually lead to the formation of the National Assembly and the demand for a more democratic government.
Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès - A prominent political theorist during the French Revolution; authored the influential pamphlet "What is the Third Estate?".
National Assembly (17 June 1789-Sept. 1791) - Formed by the Third Estate after being locked out of the Estates General, declaring itself the true representative body of the French nation and committing to drafting a new constitution.
Oath of the Tennis Court (20 June 1789) - A pledge by members of the Third Estate to not disband until a new constitution was written, a defiant act against the king's authority that symbolized the growing revolutionary sentiment.
The Bastille Stormed (14 July 1789) - A symbolic act of rebellion against the monarchy, where Parisians stormed a royal prison, marking the start of the French Revolution and signifying the collapse of royal authority.
Declaration of the Rights of Man (27 August 1789) - A foundational document of the French Revolution, declaring universal rights such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, and inspiring democratic movements worldwide.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12 July 1790) - An attempt to reorganize the Roman Catholic Church in France, making clergy civil servants, requiring them to swear an oath of loyalty to the state, and leading to a significant split within the Church.
Metric System - A system of measurement based on powers of ten, introduced in France during the revolution to standardize weights and measures, promoting rationality and uniformity.
Constitution (14 July 1790, revised and accepted by Louis XVI, 14 Sept. 1791) - Established a constitutional monarchy in France, limiting the king's power and creating a legislative assembly, though ultimately short-lived.
National Convention (Sept. 1792-Oct. 1795) - The governing body of France during the most radical phase of the French Revolution, which abolished the monarchy, established the First French Republic, and oversaw the Reign of Terror.
Maximilian Robespierre - A leading figure of the Jacobins and the Committee of Public Safety, instrumental in the Reign of Terror, advocating for extreme measures to defend the Revolution before his own execution.
Committee of Public Safety - Established to protect the Revolution from its enemies, it became the de facto government during the Reign of Terror, wielding immense power and orchestrating mass executions.
Olympe De Gouges Declaration of the Rights of Women (1791) - A feminist response to the Declaration of the Rights of Man, advocating for equal rights for women and criticizing the revolutionaries' failure to extend liberty to all.
Mary Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) - An influential essay arguing for the moral and intellectual equality of men and women and advocating for women's education as essential for a more rational society.
Edmund Burke Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) - A seminal critique of the French Revolution from a conservative perspective, emphasizing the dangers of radical change and the importance of tradition, order, and incremental reform.
Tom Paine The Rights of Man (1791) - A widely read defense of the French Revolution and a response to Burke, arguing for natural rights, popular sovereignty, and republican government.
The Reign of Terror - A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) marked by mass executions of those deemed enemies of the revolution, carried out by the Committee of Public Safety under Robespierre.
“Propagandist Decrees” - Decrees issued during the French Revolution, such as the Edict of Fraternity (1792), aimed at promoting revolutionary ideals abroad and encouraging other peoples to overthrow their monarchies.
Concordat (1801) - An agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, restoring the Catholic Church's status in France while allowing state control over clergy appointments and salaries, ending a decade of religious conflict.
Code Napoleon (1804) - A comprehensive and uniform set of civil laws established under Napoleon, reforming the French legal system, emphasizing equality before the law, and influencing many other legal codes worldwide.
The Berlin and Milan Decrees (1806-07) - Napoleonic decrees that forbade European nations from trading with Great Britain, part of the Continental System, aiming to cripple the British economy.
Continental System - Napoleon's policy designed to economically cripple Great Britain by imposing a large-scale embargo on British trade with continental Europe, though it ultimately failed to achieve its objective.
Thomas Malthus An Essay on the Principles of Population (1798) - Argued that population growth tends to outpace food supply, leading to poverty and famine, unless checked by moral restraint or natural disasters.
David Ricardo “Iron Law of Wages” - Proposed that real wages tend to gravitate towards the minimum required for subsistence, due to population growth and competition among laborers, a pessimistic view of worker's economic prospects.
Karl Marx - German philosopher, economist, historian, and revolutionary; co-author of The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, advocating for historical materialism and the eventual overthrow of capitalism by the proletariat.
Friedrich Engels Condition of the Working Class in England (1845) - A detailed account of the harsh conditions faced by the industrial working class in England based on personal observations and research, highlighting the social injustices of the era.
The Communist Manifesto (1848) - A foundational text of communism, written by Marx and Engels, outlining the theory of class struggle, the revolutionary role of the proletariat, and calling for a classless society.
Klemens von Metternich - Austrian statesman and diplomat; a dominant figure at the Congress of Vienna and a key proponent of conservative order in Europe, aiming to suppress liberal and nationalist movements.
Concert of Europe - A system of dispute resolution adopted by the major European powers after the Napoleonic Wars to maintain peace and stability through diplomacy, balance of power, and collective security.
Adam Smith - Scottish economist and philosopher, known as the "Father of Modern Economics" for his seminal work The Wealth of Nations, advocating for free markets, limited government intervention, and the 'invisible hand'.
Jeremy Bentham - English philosopher and social reformer, founder of utilitarianism, advocating for policies that promote the "greatest happiness of the greatest number" and influence prison reform.
Guiseppe Mazzini - Italian revolutionary and political activist known for his efforts to unify Italy and his advocacy for a republican government, a key figure in the Risorgimento.
Guiseppe Garibaldi - Italian general and nationalist who played a crucial role in the Risorgimento (Italian unification) through his military campaigns, particularly his expedition of the "Redshirts".
Casper David Friedrich - German Romantic painter, known for his allegorical landscapes that often feature solitary figures contemplating nature, conveying a sense of awe and spiritual longing.
Johann Gottfried Herder - German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic, influential in the development of Romantic nationalism and the concept of Volksgeist, emphasizing the unique character of nations.
“Volksgeist” - A German term meaning "spirit of the people," referring to the unique character, culture, or identity of a nation or ethnic group, central to Romantic nationalism.
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm - German philologists and folklorists, best known for collecting and publishing German fairy tales (Grimm's Fairy Tales), contributing to the development of German national culture and linguistics.
Ludwig van Beethoven - German composer, a pivotal figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western music, celebrated for his symphonies, concertos, and sonatas.
Carlsbad Decrees (1819) - A set of restrictive laws in the German Confederation aimed at suppressing liberal and nationalist movements, particularly in universities, through censorship and surveillance.
Frankfurt Parliament - An attempt to unify Germany in 1848 through a liberal assembly that drafted a constitution for a united Germany but ultimately failed due to a lack of support from German rulers and conservative forces.
The “Peterloo Massacre” (1819) - A cavalry charge against a peaceful pro-democracy protest in Manchester, England, advocating for parliamentary reform, resulting in several deaths and many injuries, highlighting government brutality.
Sir Robert Peel - British statesman, who served as Prime Minister twice and founded the modern Conservative Party, known for his establishment of the Metropolitan Police Force (Bobbies) and his repeal of the Corn Laws.
Daniel O'Connell - Irish political leader, known as "The Liberator," who successfully campaigned for Catholic emancipation (1829) and later for the repeal of the Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland.
Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832 - A landmark act that significantly reformed the electoral system in the United Kingdom, redistributing parliamentary seats from 'rotten boroughs' to industrial towns and expanding the franchise to a wealthier middle class.
Chartism The “People’s Charter” - A working-class movement in Britain (1838-1848) that advocated for political reforms, including universal male suffrage, secret ballots, annual parliaments, and equal electoral districts. The People's Charter was its central document.
Otto von Bismarck’s - Prussian statesman who orchestrated the unification of Germany through a series of wars (Danish, Austro-Prussian, Franco-German) and skillful diplomacy, becoming its first Chancellor.
The Austro-Prussian War (1866) - A war between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, resulting in Prussian dominance over the German states, the dissolution of the German Confederation, and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs.
The Franco-German War (1870-71) - A conflict between the French Second Empire and the German states led by Prussia, resulting in German unification under Prussian leadership, the fall of Napoleon III, and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany.
Camillo de Cavour - Italian statesman, a leading figure in the movement towards Italian unification (Risorgimento), serving as the first Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy and orchestrating alliances to achieve national unity.
Piedmont-Sardinia - A kingdom in northwestern Italy, which played a crucial role in the unification of Italy under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Camillo Cavour, serving as the nucleus for the new Italian state.
Edwin Chadwick - English social reformer, known for his impactful 1842 report on the "Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population," advocating for public health improvements, clean water, and sanitation.
Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree - English social researcher and industrialist, known for his pioneering studies on poverty in York (circa 1900), which helped define the concept of a "poverty line" and influenced social policy.
Charles Booth - British social researcher and philanthropist, known for his extensive survey Life and Labour of the People in London, which meticulously documented poverty, social conditions, and class structures in late 19th-century London.
Eduard Bernstein - German social democratic theoretician