Note
Studied by 16 people
Science Review
Chemistry:
Matter :
Matter is defined as anything that has a mass and volume ( takes up space)
The particle theory of matter is as follows:
a) all matter is made up of tiny particles known as molecules or atoms
b) all particles in a pure substance are identical but different from those in another pure substance
c) particles are always moving
d) particles at a higher temperature move faster than those at a lower one
e) Particles always attract one another and the closer they are, the stronger the attraction
There are 3 states of matter:
Solids ◼
Liquid🫗
Gas 😮💨
Matter can be broken down into two categories: Mixtures and Pure substances
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative observations/qualities are observations or qualities that can be measured and/or expressed with a numerical value
Qualitative observations/qualities are observations and qualities that can not be measured or expressed with a numerical value but rather can be found with senses
Subatomic Particles
There are 3 subatomic particles within an atom: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
Protrons:
Positively charged particles
Located inside the nucleus
Discovered by Rutherford
P＋
Electrons
Negatively charged particles
Located on the shells that orbit the nucleus
Discovered by J.J Thompson
e-
Neutrons
Particles with no electric charge
Located inside the nucleus
Discovered by Chadwick
N▫
Finding an Elements name, atomic number, mass,
On the periodic table, each element has a different uppercase letter that represents it
Sometimes there may be two letters, one uppercase and one lowercase
Ex. K = Potassium, Cl = Chlorine
Atomic numbers are used to organize the elements and an elements atomic number will be found just above its symbol/name
Ex. S (Sulfur) = 16
An elements mass can be found below its symbol
Ex. C (carbon) = 12
Finding an Elements # of protons, electrons, neutrons and valence electrons
To find the # of protons look at the atomic number
To find the # of electrons, it will be the same as the # of protons
# of neutrons = Atomic mass - # of protons
Valence electrons = electrons on the outer shell = number of group or the second digit of the group
Ex. sulfur = group 16 = 6 valence electrons
Ex. magnesium = group 2 = 2 valence electrons
Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical properties describe the substance without changing the original substance. Chemical properties tell us what changes the matter can undergo
Physical Property : A characteristic of a substance that can be determined without changing the composition of the substance. It can be observed purely with our senses or tests and measurements
Can be qualitative ( not measurable; uses senses) or it can be quantitative (measurable and numerical value)
Ex: state, hardness, malleability, melting/freezing/boiling point, form, viscosity, density lustre, optical clarity,texture, conductibility, brittleness, mass ,volume, etc.
Chemical Property: A characteristic of a substance that is determined when the composition of the substance is changed and one or more new substances are produced.
Ex.Combustibility (the ability of a substance to burn. Ex. Gasoline is very combustible.flammable where as water is not)
Ex. Reactivity with other substances (how easily a substance reacts with another substance like oxygen, water, or acid
Ex, Sensitivity to light (how the substance reacts when exposed to light)
Chemical vs Physical change
Physical changes is the change in which the composition of a substance remains unaltered and no new substances are formed. (ex. Cutting a piece of paper, dissolving something in water since particles only spread out)
In Chemical Changes, the original substance is changed into a new substance that has different properties or where at least one new substance is formed (ex. Burnt Toast)
Signs a chemical change has occurred:
1. A change in colour has occurred
2. Energy has been released or absorbed → heat or light is given off
3. Gas is released aka bubbles
4. A precipitate is formed
5. The change is difficult to reverse (ex. Cooking something)
Bohr-Rutherford for an atom and an Ion
C = Atom, Ca = Ion
+ means electrons were lost, - means they were gained and # tells you how many there were
Molecular vs. Ionic + their diagrams
Molecular : Atoms join together because they Share electrons
Goal is still to have a full valence shell
The bond that forms is a covalent bond
Happens between 2 or more nonmentals
Ionic: Atoms lose or gain electrons to gain a charge
Ions are atoms that are charged through this process
Happens between a metal and a non-metal
Occurs when an atom has lost or gained electrons
Atoms that lose or gain electrons become stable
They lose or gain depending on what is easier to attain
Metals typically lose el. And give to non metals
Atoms that lose electrons become Positive or Cations
Atoms that gain electrons become negative or Anions
What are the different chemical families
Alkali metals are found in group 1 and are very reactive and only become more reactive as you go down. They are not found freely in nature and they are very malleable and good conductors of heat and electricity.
Alkaline earth metals are found in group 2 and are very reactive and not found free in nature
Halogens are found in group 17 and can exist at room temperature in all 3 states of matter. Compounds containing halogens are called salts since halogen mean salt former
Noble gases are found in group 18 and are very stable and rarely react with other elements
Transition metals are found in groups 3-12 and are both ductile and malleable,conduct electricity and heat, and are less reactive and less metallic than other metals.
Trends on the periodic table
Elements in the same horizontal row ( period) show trends of increasing or decreasing reactivity
Ex. group 1 is more reactive than group 2
An elements period also determines its # of shells
In the same group = same/similar chemical properties
An elements group determines the valence electrons
Counting atoms
1. The Symbol of an element represents one atom of that element
2. A subscript is a number written at the lower right corner after the element symbol.
If there is more than one atom of the element, the subscript tells you how many there are
3. A subscript outside the bracket multiples all the elements inside the bracelet only.
Example. CaFշ = 1 CA atom, Two f atoms; Be (OH)շ = 1 Be atom, 2 O atoms, 2 H atoms
Molecules made up of only two atoms are called Diatomic
Seven elements that form molecules with two identical atoms are: HOFBrINCl
Examples:
Example of a Bohr Rutherford Diargam with Nitrogen :
Nitrogen Combined With Lithium
Ionic since there is 1 metal and one non metal
Diagrams:
\
What If Nitrogen Combines with itself to form N2:
Diatomic and a part of HOFBrINCl
Molecular since there are two nonmetals
Diagram:
Density:
Density: The amount of matter per unit volume of that matter
The density of water is 1.0g/mL
Lead is more dense than feathers
Measured in kg/m3, g/cm3, or g/mL
To calculate density use Density = Mass/Volume OR D = M ÷ V
Biology/ Ecology:
Ecology:
Ecology is the study of the relationships between living things and their surrounding
Biosphere
The locations in which life can exist within the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere; very thin compared to the size of the Earth
All living things need: Space, Water, and Nutrients to survive but since these resources are limited, the # of species that can live within the biosphere are also limit
Hydrosphere
All water on, above or below the earth's surface
Lithosphere
Earth's outer shell composed of rocks and minerals that makes mountains, ocean floors, an the rest of earth's solid surface
50-150 km thick
Atmosphere
Layer of gases that surrounds the earth and extends hundreds of kilometres upwards
Critical for life on earth ( moderates surface temperature, protects from UV rays, etc.)
Composed of mostly nitrogen, then oxygen and 1% of other gases (i,e CO2, Water, etc.)
What are ecosystems composed of?
Organism: An Individual living thing
Population: Group of organisms of one type that live in the same area
Community: Populations that live together in a defined area
Ecosystem: Community and its non-living surroundings
Biotic and Abiotic factors/components
No matter what the size, any ecosystem is characterized by a distinct set of abiotic and biotic features.
Biotic Factors Vs. Abiotic Factors:
Biotic factors :the living things in an ecosystem (including their remains, products or wastes)
Determine a species success
Biotic factors involve interactions between individuals such as:
Competition : Either with their own species or other organisms for resources such as light space and mates
Mutualism: occurs when two organisms interact, both benefiting
Commensalism: when one organism benefits and the other neither benefits or is harmed
Parasitism: occurs when one organism lives on or in a host and feeds on it.
Abiotic factors: the non-living components of an ecosystem
Determine a species survival
Every species can live within a range of these factors; we call this the Tolerance Range
Difference between photosynthesis and cellular respiration?
Photosynthesis : the process where the light energy from the Sun is converted into chemical energy, in the form of sugar.
Chemical energy can be used by all organisms to perform life functions (move, grow, and reproduce)
Cellular Respiration: the process where sugar is converted into carbon dioxide, water, and energy
This process is complementary to photosynthesis, but it releases energy from food.
This energy used for activity carried out by the cell
Who undergoes each?
Photosynthesis: Undergone by Producers (i,e plants, algae, or any organism that is able to make its own food)
Cellular Respiration: undergone by both plants and animals (or any organism that is not a producer)
What is the word equation for photosynthesis? What is the word equation for cellular respiration?
Photosynthesis = carbon dioxide + water → sugar + oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Cellular Respiration = Sugar + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6 CO2 + 6H2O + energy
8. Food chains vs food webs.
Food chains illustrate who eats who in an ecosystem in a linear way.
Food webs are a series of interconnecting food chains that are useful for predicting the impact of adding or removing a species to/from an ecosystem.
Food webs illustrate interactions between organisms in an ecosystem in a more accurate and complex way
Practice Food Webs:
Using the following food web, identify an organism in the first trophic level.
Berries
Identify an organism in the fourth trophic level.
Dragonfly
Provide an example of a food chain that can be created from this food web starting with berries.
Berries → Butterfly → Frog → Snakes → Buzzard
What would happen to the fox population if the mouse population increases? Explain
your answer.
If the mouse population increases, the fox population will thrive and possibly increase since it will have a larger quantity of its food sources, allowing it to not struggle food food and have an abundance of energy disposable
What species in the food web perform photosynthesis? Which perform cellular respiration?
Photosynthesis: Berries, Plantain
Cellular respiration : Green fly, butterfly, grasshopper, rabbit, mouse, fox, etc.
12. What would happen to the fox population if the mouse population decreases?
If the mouse population decreases, the mouse population might also decrease since it will have less food to eat, thus having less energy sources. Therefore, there might not be enough mice to sustain all the foxes, forcing them to go hungry and resulting in decreased numbers.
13. What are the different kinds of producers and consumers?
Producers = Autotrophs
Consumers = heterotrophs
Primary (ex. Grasshopper)
Secondary (ex. Frog)
Tertiary (ex. Snake)
14. What kinds of predator-prey relationships exist? What are the other types of relationships?
Predator Prey example: Rabbit ( Prey) and Fox ( predator)
Competition Example: The fox and buzzard compete for the mouse
15. What is carrying capacity?
The maximum population size of a particular species that a given ecosystem can sustain
As population size increases, the demand for resources ( i,e. Water, food, shelter) also increase
Eventually there will not be enough resources for each individual
Carrying capacity can be altered through human activities or natural activities such as when resources are added or removed to the ecosystem or through the loss or introduction of a species.
16. List the different biotic and abiotic limiting factors, and explain how they could impact different aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
A limiting factor is any factor that places an upper limit on the size of a population.
Biotic Limiting Factors: Food availability, Predation., disease, mate availability, etc.
Ex. Food availability/competition for food affects species in a terrestrial environment because if there is no enough food to sustain them, they may die or not be able to thrive
Ex. Predation impacts species in aquatic ecosystems because smaller fish might be constantly threatened by larger ones, impacting their life span and reproduction rates
Abiotic Limiting Factors: Access to water, Temperature, sunlight availability, nutrient availability,etc.
Ex. In a terrestrial ecosystem, if species don't have the access to water that they need, they will die
Ex. In an aquatic ecosystem, some species might not be able to survive in certain temperatures.
17. What is the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers?
Consumers: also known as heterotrophs, Consumers are organisms that eat other organisms to obtain energy since they can not produce their own food.
Primary Consumers: Herbivores = organisms that eat plants or other producers
Secondary Consumers: Carnivores = organism that eat primary consumers
Tertiary Consumers: Top carnivores = organisms that eat secondary consumers
18. What is the difference between primary and secondary succession?
Ecological Succession: The process of establishing and replacing a community following a disturbance
There are two types of succession: Primary Succession and Secondary Succession
Primary Succession occurs on soil or bare rock, where no life previously existed, such as following a volcanic eruption. Another ex. Dune Succession
Secondary Succession follows a disturbance that disrupts but does not destroy the community, such as a forest fire
19. What are the different forestry practices?
a) Clearcutting: removal of all or most of the trees in a given area; it is economical and efficient
Most common method of harvesting in Ontario
Intended to create the pattern produced by a forest fire
Regeneration can occur naturally or by planting
Results in forest with even aged trees
b) Shelterwood Cutting: mature trees are harvested in a series of two or more cuts
provide cover and food sources for wildlife
Allows regeneration under the shelter of remaining trees
Can be replanted or occur naturally
a) Selective: foresters harvest only selected trees; The most expensive type of cutting
Has the least impact on ecological features of the forest
Occurs where there are high values for individual trees and in parks
Appearance is important
20. Renewable vs non-renewable resources
Non-Renewable: A resource that cannot be replaced as quickly as it is consumed
Fossil Fuels (i,e. Coal, Gas, or other harmful chemicals that are teh result of organism decomposition from millions of years ago)
Nuclear power also releases CO2, uses uranium and is extremely radioactive/dangerous, and releases energy through chemical reactions)
Renewable: Natural resource that is unlimited or can be replenished in a short amount of time
Biomass
Geothemal
Hydroelectric
Tidal
Wind
Solar
21. Methods to control invasive species.
Invasive Species: a non-native species whose intentional or accidental introduction negatively impacts the natural environment
Chemical Control: pesticides are used on forest and agricultural pests. Environmental risks include pollution and killing non-target native species.
Mechanical Control: Physical barriers or removal can be used to control some invasive species
Biological Control: intentionally introducing organisms to control invasive species
22. What is DDT? What happens when it’s been used for a period of time
DDT is a synthetic, broad spectrum pesticide/insecticide that was one of the first widely used synthetic pesticides. It is highly persistent within food chains and was widely banned in the 1970s but is still used by some countries to kill mosquitos and malaria.
When its been used for a long period of time it can result in resistance ( meaning the pesticide can no longer control the pest) or bioaccumulation (when the chemical accumulate within the species, causing harm to its health and reproduction ability)
23. Pollution (pg 96)- advantages and disadvantages of pollution, acid rain, oil spills, plastic.
Pollution: harmful contaminants released into the environment
Prevalent due to increasing population size which results in increased waste alongside lifestyles supported by hazardous chemicals (ex.car exhaust., pesticides)
Pollution harms ecosystems and human health but des help cool down the earth from global warming
Acid Precipitation is also an urgent climate hazard made more extreme by Pollution
precipitation that has been made more acidic than usual by the combination of certain chemicals in the air with water vapour.
Sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides combine with water vapour in the atmosphere to form acids- the water later falls as acid precipitation.
sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides are produced in industrial processes and from burning fossil fuels (eg: coal and petroleum)
Can be neutralized by limestone
Decreases # of species in aquatic ecosystems
Acid rain depletes nutrients in soil in terrestrial ecosystems
Oil Spills: one of the most dramatic and devastating of water pollution events because they are toxic, slow to break down, and difficult to clean up
Sea birds and seals are very vulnerable to oil spills
Clean-Up Methods:
Skimming/Vaccuming: when oil is collected in a vessel ( if water conditions permit)
Bioremediation: the use of micro-organisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants (inefficient)
Burning: surface oil: prevents it from sinking or washing up on shore (creates air pollution)
Dispersal agents: breaks up oil into smaller droplets (can spread spill to other areas)
Plastic: Plastic is inexpensive which makes it a very popular product for manufacturing but it poses a threat to ecosystems as many species mistake it for food and cannot chemically degraded thus remaining in our ecosystems for years whilst accumulating in the oceans.
24.How to reduce ecological footprint
Use renewable resources, recycle properly, eat less meat, don't litter, buy local, plant trees, compost,etc.
25.Fertilizers (Natural, artificial, etc)
Fertilizer: any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients.
Natural: Fertilizers that are naturally produced (ex.shellfish,compost, Banana peel,eggshells,etc.
Artificial: Fertilizers of synthetic origin (i..e, urea, ammonium nitrate, potassium chloride, etc.)
Due to chemicals involved, excess use can be harmful
26.Pests, Pesticides, Bioaccumulation and agroecosystems
Agroecosystems: Ecosystems designed and managed by humans for agricultural purposes
Devoting land to food production has dramatic biological implications. It alters food webs, water cycles, and biogeochemical cycles
In natural relationships, organisms are part of complex food webs where producers and consumers co exist ut in agroecosystems these relationships are absent
To maximize crop growth, we try to eliminate organisms called pests
Pests = organisms that might compete or damage crop species; a destructive insect or other animal that attacks crop,livestock, etc.
Ex. Colorado potato Beetles, asian long horned beetle
One of the most common ways to get rid of these pests is to use poisons called pesticides
Pesticides can last years or days but natural pesticides do not tend to last as long as synthetic ones ( though modern ones don't last as long as ones developed 30+ years ago)
Pesticides vary widely in the amount of species they are able to control
Broad-Spectrum Pesticides = Toxic to wide range of species
Narrow Spectrum : Toxic to limited number of species
Pesticide examples: DDT, Rotenone, glyphosate, Bt
Persistence is how long the pesticide lasts before it degrades or breaks down
Pesticides work because they cause physical or biological harm to the organism
Some pesticides must be delivered directly ( like sprayed on leaves for example) but some are indirectly applied ( through soil for example)
Pesticides had helped farmers reduce crop damage and increase food production and control populations of organisms that spread diseases. (Benefits)
With how many pesticides are applied, issues arise
A serious issue with pesticides is that sometimes they reach non-target species or areas
These pesticides then become causes of soil, air and water pollution along with hurting these non-target species
Bioaccumulation: A side effect that happens when pesticides accumulate within an individual organism due to the fact that some pesticides are not broken down or eliminated with other bodily wastes
If an individual continues to eat food contaminated with the pesticide, it will accumulate in the body
If the pesticide is long lived then the concentration of pesticide in the individuals will increase to levels much higher than in the environment which is what we call bioaccumulation
Bioamplification: The higher up the food chain an animal is, the more concentrated the pesticides the pesticides become as a result of toxins being passed up the trophic levels
This is one of the dangers of consuming food from the top of the food web
When organism at a higher level consumes other organisms, these toxins are passed onto the next trophic level
Pesticide Resistance: When pesticides are used for long periods of time, some pest species may become resistant (meaning that the pesticide is no longer able to control the pest)
They can pass on this resistance to future generations
Due to its resistance a farmer either needs to apply a greater concentration of pesticides or switch to a different pesticides
Pesticide resistance is a worldwide concern
Pesticides can seriously mess up ecosystems
Pesticides can not be used to describe natural ecosystems since in natural ecosystems everything is a part of the balance of consumers and producers
The world is trying to lower dependence on pesticides
One way is by sng the integrated pest management (IPM0
By limiting pesticide use, grocers set higher prices for these organic productS
27.Species Types (Invasive, endangered, etc)
Invasive Species = A non-native species whose intentional or accidental introduction negatively impacts the natural environment
The introduction of these non-native species ( by humans) is a big cause of species loss
While it is hard for these species to adapt and many fail, occasionally they are successful
Their new ecosystem may lack population control for the species ( i,e. Predator and diseases) and thus they take over rapidly, becoming invasive
Species at risk = Many species are dying out or going extinct as a result of the destruction of their natural habitats through deforestation,pollution,climate change, and urbanization. However, a species does not have to be extinct for there to be ecological consequences
When the population size declines below a critical level, the species will no longer be able to fill its ecological niche= consequences on abiotic and biotic factors
Committee on the status of endangered wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) uses species data to classify species at risk
Extirpated: No longer exist in the wild in a specific area but still lives elsewhere
Endangered: Species are in imminent danger of going extinct or becoming extirpated
Threatened : likely to become endangered if current trends continue
Special Concern: May become threatened or endangered because of a combo of factors
Physics:
What is static electricity?
A form of electricity that charges objects by rubbing them together, touching each other, bumping each other a lot, or by being in close contact
charged = an imbalance of electric charge on an object's surface
Electrons leave on surface and collect on the other
It is called static since charges are at rest on the object's surface.
3 methods are:
Friction
Induction
Conduction
Friction
Occurs when two different neutral materials are rubbed together or come into contact(actually touch) causing electric charges to be transferred from one object to the other
Both objects start neutral
One object loses electrons and becomes Positively Charged
One object gains electrons and becomes Negatively Charged
To know which object will do what, use the electrostatic series ( a lis of a substance's ability to hold on to its electrons)
Since some substances have a weaker hold on their electrons, they will lose these electrons
Are closer to the to the top and thus will lose electrons and become positive
Since some substances have a stronger hold on their electrons
Are closer to the bottom and will certainly become negative.
Induction
Charged objects can be used to charge a neutral object without contact
When a charged objects moves near a neutral object to shift resulting in unequal charges on the neutral object ]
This is temporary since electrons can move back one the charged object is moved away
Objects with like charges repel while objects with opposite charges attract
Therefore if the charged object is positive, the electrons in the neutral object will shift towards it
Therefore if the charged object is negative, the electrons in the neutral object will move back
To permanently charge with induction you must use a grounding wire!
Charging by induction always results in two opposite charges
Either one charged or one neutral
Or the one that does the inducing keeps its original charge and the one that was induced receives the opposite
A grounding wire is a conductor that connects the neutral object to the ground and spending on the situation, electrons will either move up it or travel down to the ground
Conduction
When two objects come into physical contact with each other,
Neutral objects can become charged if you touch it with a charged object
When this happens both objects end up with the same charge
Ex. if the charged object is negative, electrons will move onto the neutral object making both of them Negative
If the charged object is positive, electrons from the neural object ill move onto the charged on making them both Positive
Electrons will move in an effort to balance the charges and will move to the object with the least # of electrons
If both are charged : Electrons will move away from the object with more electrons to share the charge evenly
Electric Discharge
When two objects who have a charge imbalance are brought close together or come back electrons are transferred
Large attractions between positive and negative charges can cause electrons to JUMP between the gap
Rapid transfer of excess electrons is known as electric discharge
Electrons move from the object with more electrons to the one with less
The greater the imbalance the more noticeable the discharge (i,e small discharges or not loud or painful while large ones like lightning can be dangerous)
What is grounding?
Grounding an object involves removing a charge (positive or negative) by transferring electrons between the object and a large neutral object
The goal of grounding is to make charged objects NEUTRAL
Or charge permanently by induction
An effective way to gound is to use the earth o
If not use any conductor
Electrons can either travel up from the earth to make the object negative or travel down to the earth to make the object positive (depends on the situation)
Grounding Symbol and diagram:
Using the Electostatic Series
● If wool was rubbed on the ebonite rod, would the rod be positively or negatively charged? Explain how
If wool was rubbed on the ebonite rod, the rod would be negatively charged. Since the rod is much lower on the ectrostatis series than the wool, that means that the ebonite rod has a stronger hold on its electrons and will be more likely to gain electrons.Whereas the wool has a weak hold on its electrons and will lose them. Therefore, these additional electrons will make the ebonite negatively charged.
If you were to hold the charged rod close to a pile of paper circles explain what would happen
The electrons in the pile of paper would shift away from the rod pushing the protons forward.
Ammeter
A device that measures current in amperes
Can only be connected in series
Voltmeter
A device that measures the voltage in volts
Can only be connected in parallel
Ohmmeter
A device that measures the resistance in a circuit in ohms (Ω)
Can only be connected in parallel
Will work even if teh circuit is off
Potential Difference
Potential Difference is the difference in electric potential energy (work being done by electrons) per unit of charge measured at two different points
Also known as voltage
Measured in volts
Can be compared to pressure in a hose since it is the force making electrons move
There is always a drop in voltage across a load or energy source
The potential difference between the positive and negative terminals creates the flow of electrons
The symbol for potential difference or voltage is V
Current
Current is the movement of electric charge that passes a point in a circuit every second and has the symbol I
Measured in amperes
Is the movement of electrons
Large currents and damage electrical devices or even cause death
Letgo threshold is 0.05-0.15A and 1.0 will stop your heart
Wall outlets have 15A
Resistance
Opposes the movement of electrons as they flow through a circuit and measured in ohms (Ω)
Symbol is R
Slow down the flow of electrons
Can help limit current so that its not too powerful or dangerous
Alls materials have some internal resistance
The greater the current the higher the voltage
Greg ohm discovered the relationship between resistance, current and voltage
Factors that influence resistance:
Type of material (conductor vs insulator)
Thickness (thicker wire = lower resistance)
Length (longer wire= higher resistance)
Temperature (higher temperature=higher resistance)
Charge
Symbol: Q
Unit: coulombs : C
The quantity of unbalanced electricity
Energy
Symbol: E
Measured in Joules
However, Energy used is measured in kW per H
Different units of measure and what they are used to Measure
Volts (Voltage)
Amperes (current)
Ohms (Resistance)
kiloWatts( Power)
Joules ( Energy)
Coulombs ( Charge)
Seconds ( time for current)
Hours ( Time for energy used and cost to operate)
Kilowatts per hour ( energy used)
King Henry Doesn't Usually Drink Chocolate Milk
Parts of a Circuit
Four Essentials:
An energy source (ex. Battery)
A Load ( device that converts electrical into other forms of usable energy)
Conducting Wire ( join all the parts in an electrical circuit ( usually a conductor)
Switch ( sometimes, controls the flow in an electrical circuit)
Others:
Fuse ( breaks if too much current)
Lightbulb
Resistor
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Ground connection
Open or closed switch ( closed one allows current to flow, open doesn't)
Calculating Energy
E = P x T
Energy in kW . Hr
Power in kW
Time in Hours
E = V x Q
Energy in joules
Voltage in volts
Charge (Q) in coulombs
Calculating Cost
Cost = Power used x Time x Cost of electricity
C= PxTxR
Power in kW
Time in hrs
Cost = Energy used x Cost of electricity
C = ExR
Energy used in kW.H
Calculating efficiency
Since not all of the energy is transferred into electricity and a lot is lost in the form of heat, the appliances that are better at using more of the energy they are given are more efficient
%Efficiency = Useful energy output / Total energy input x 100 %
Higher percent = more efficient
Calculating Current
Current = Charge/Time
I= Q/T
Total Current In Series (It) = I1 = I2 = I3 …..
Same all around
Total Current In Parallel (It)= I1 + I2 + I3 + ….
Current divided amongst loads
Calculating Voltage
Voltage = Energy/Charge
V = E/Q
Total Voltage In Series (Vt) = V1 +V2 +V3….
Each load adds up to total voltage
Total Voltage In Parallel (Vt) = V1 = V2 = V3
Each load has the same voltage
Calculating Resistance
Resistance = Voltage/Current
R = V/I
V=IR
Total Resistance in Series = R1 + R2 + R3……
Resistance increases with more loads
To Find Total Resistance in Parallel:
1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3……
Resistance decreases with more loads
Calculating Charge
Charge = Current x Time
Q= I x T
Charge= Energy / Voltage
Q = E/V
Practice Resistance !
Calculate the resistance of a load if it contains 2.4 A of current flowing through it while the voltage across the load is 12.2 V. Use the GRASS Method.
G : I = 2.4A, V=12.2V
R: R = ?
A: R= V/I
S: R = 12.2v / 2.4A
R = 5.0833 Ω
S: Therefore, the resistance of the load 5.08 Ω
What is the difference between a conductor and an insulator?
Conductor: A material that allows electrons to move freely/easily
Ideal for electric wires and grounders
Insulator: A material that prohibits or restraints the movement of electrons
Used to keep us safe from electric shock
Provide an example of each
Conductor Example: Copper, gold, aluminium
Insulator Example: Rubber, Plastic, Glass
What is a load?
A device that transforms electrical energy into another form of usable energy /anything that uses electricity to work
What are various examples of loads
Lightbulb
Toaster
Resistors
heaters
Practice Efficiency !
A fridge produces 3500 J of energy and requires 4075 J of electrical energy. Would you say that this fridge is environmentally friendly? Explain your answer and show your calculation.
G: Energy In. = 4075 J, Energy Out. = 3500J
R: %efficiency
A: % Efficiency = Energy out./ Energy in. x 100
S: % Eff. = 3500 J / 4075 J x 100
% Eff = 0.85 100
% Eff= 85.89
S: Therefore this device is efficient and environmentally friendly because it uses the majority of energy it receives ( 85%).
Practice cost!
If your electricity costs 5.6c/kWh how much would it cost to use the appliance that uses 259kW for 5 hours per year?
G: R = 5.6 c/kWh, T= 5 hours years, P=259
R: C = ?
A: C = PxTxR
S: C= 259kW x 5 x 5.6
C= 72,252 ¢
C =$ 72.52
S: Therefore it would cost $72.52 to use this appliance
What are some ways that energy can be conserved? What do we have in our homes that protect us from electrical disturbances?
Using efficient appliances
Turning off the lights/Unplugging devices when not in use
Walking instead of driving
Circuit breakers protect us from electrical disturbances
Surg proctors protect us
Fuses protect us
a.. How does this relate to being a Steward of the Earth
When energy is wasted, greenhouse gases are released which can contribute to climate change and global warming
Thats why its important to conserve our energy so that we can protect our earth as well
Furthermore, conserving energy helps ensure the availability of resources for future generations
Provide examples of and describe both renewable and non-renewable energy resources.
Non Renewable: A resource that cannot be replaced as quickly as it is consumed
Fossil Fuels: Naturally occurring as a result of the decomposition and pressure of organisms such as plants, animals, and other micro-organisms that lived millions of years ago. (ex. Coal, Natural Gas, oil)
Nuclear Power: primarily uses uranium, which is radioactive and releases energy through chemical reactions (the nuclei of uranium atoms break apart and release huge amounts of energy)
Renewable: Natural resource that is unlimited or can be replenished in a short amount of time
Biomass: burning of materials, which can include plants, garbage, and oils. The heat generated from the material boils water, which produces steam. The steam spins large turbines that generate electricity
Hydroelectric: The power or flow of water is used to spin a large turbine, which is connected to a generator to produce electricity.
What are some pros and cons of each?
Fossil Fuel Pro: Low cost, abundant, efficient heavily reliant
Fossil Fuel Cons: Produces carbon dioxide and other harmful chemicals, finding them can cause environmental damage to both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
Nuclear Power Pro: Consistent, efficient,
Nuclear Power con: Extremely dangerous
Biomass Pro: Renewable,widely available, helps reduce waste
Biomass Con: requires a lot of space, expensive, not efficient
Hydroelectric pro: Clean ( no pollution), Efficient, easy to find
Hydroelectric Cons: Algae can take over and affect ecosystem, reservoirs flood - destroy forests/farms
Best times to use electricity
Summer = better at night, winter = better in day
Space:
1. Life cycle of a star (names, order, and descriptions of stages)
Star: massive celestial body composed of hot gases that radiates large amounts of energy
Every star has a unique life cycle BUT nebula is consistent for all
Life Cycles:
. Nebula
Cloud of gas and dust called nebulae are the birthplace of stars
Then interstellar particles are pulled together by gravity and the temperature in the center rises
The hydrogen atoms undergo nuclear fusion to create helium, causing energy to release and the star to shine
Main Sequence Star
This is where the majority of a stars life is lived ( its where the sun is right now)
The interior of the star releases a great amount of energy
The forces are all balanced by gravity pulling toward the center resulting in a stable state
The time a star spends in this stage depends on its mass
Intermediate Mass stars
Our sun is an intermediate mass star and consume hydrogen over a period of about 10 billion yea and When hydrogen has been used the core collapses
The core temperature increases and the upper layers of the star begin to expand
Once expanded to an enormous size, the outer layers cool down and the star is now a Red Giant
Our sun will do this in five billion years and winds peel away gases which will eventually reveal the inner region of the star
Then it cools and shrinks since no more nuclear fusion occurs and then becomes a white dwarf
Once it stops glowing it becomes a black dwarf
Massive Stars
Consumes hydrogen very rapidly and have a shorter life (10 million years)
The core gets so hot that helium can fuse into heavier elements\
So much energy is released that the star swells into a red supergiant
Supernovas
Silicon in the core is transformed into iron
Once the core has biome iron no further fusion can occur and the core collapses instantly
This results in a huge explosion called a Supernove
Neutron Star
If the remaining ore is about 1.4 to 3 solar masses gravity causes it to collapse down to an extremely dense object known as a neutron star
Because neutron stars from from burnt out stars, they do not glow
Black Holes
If the remaining core is 3 solar masses or greater the collapse of the star cannot be styled
The neutron star continues to shrink until it finally becomes a black hole
Lack holes are so compact and dense that not even light can escape
2. How did astronomers determine the beginning of the Universe?
The Universe: Everything that exists including all energy matter and space
Astronomers determine the beginning of the universe based on the observation of distant objects and measurements of the cosmic background radiation.This also allowed them to find the temperature at the time of the Big Bang
3. How does a radio telescope work?
Radio telescopes detect and amplify radio waves from space, turning them into signals that astronomers use to enhance our understanding of the universe
They all have two basic components, a large radio antenna and a sensitive radiometer or radio receiver
The sensitivity of a radio telescope (i,e its ability to measure weak sources of the radio emission) depends on both the area and efficiency of the antenna and on the sensitivity of the radio receiver used to amplify and detect the signals.
4. Big Bang and how temperature changes were important during this time
The big bang theory says that the universe came into being from a single unimaginably hot and dense point more than 13 billion years ago
Thus it did not occur in an already existing space but rather initiated the expansion and cooling of space itself.
based on the observation of distant objects and measurements of the cosmic background radiation, scientists were able to determine the temperature at the time of the big bang
At that instant, the temperature was 100 million trillion trillion kelvins ( 100 million trillion trillion degrees fahrenheit).
Then the universe underwent a period of accelerated expansion that ended well before a second had elapsed. By this time, it had cooled to a temperature of 100 billion kelvins (180 billion degrees Fahrenheit.
Temperate changes during the big bang dictated the particles and elements that could form and when the incredibly hot and dense universe cooled, the formation of subatomic particles, atoms and stars occurred.
5. Luminous vs Non-Luminous
Luminous : produce and emit their own light (ex.Star)
Non-Luminous: do not produce their own light and only visible because they reflect other light (ex. The moon; reflects the sun's light)
6. Order of Planets
Mercury ( My)
Venus ( Very)
Earth ( Enthusiastic)
Mars (Mother)
Jupiter ( Just)
Saturn (saw)
Uranus (universal)
Neptune ( news)
7. Inner vs outer planets vs dwarf planets
Inner Planets, also known as terrestrial planets are small, rocky planets located between the sun and gas giants
Mercury, Venus, Earth & Mars
Outer Planets, also known as the Gas Giants are large and composed of mostly gases (and liquids).
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus Neptunte
Dwarf Planets: A planet that does not fit the 3 qualifications of being a planet
Ex.Pluto
8. What makes a planet ?
To be considered a planet, a celestial object must:
1. Orbit around a star ( ex. Earth orbits the sun)
2. Be big enough for its mass to pull it into a stable sphere shape
3. Big enough to clear most objects out off its path for its orbit
If it cannot do these things, it is considered a dwarf planet
9. Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion is a process where two atoms crash into each other with enough force to fuse together
Most occur in the core of stars, such as our sun
Ex. two hydrogen atoms can fuse to make helium
10. Other members of the universe
The universe is everything that exists, including all energy matter and space
Consists of celestial objects
Celestial object: any object that exist in space
Ex. Moons
Planets
Asteroids
Small celestial objects composed of rock & metoo small to be considered planets and located in the asteroid belt, between mars and jupiter
Comets
Large chunks of rock, dust that as they approach the sun, due to solar wind from the sun, cause a gaseous tail to point away from the sun.
Most comets have two tails ( dust and gas )
Galaxies
Meteoroid
Piece of rock or metal smaller than an asteroid that may get pulled into earths atmosphere
Meteors
Meteoroids that burn up in earths atmosphere creating bright streak of lights cross the sky ( aka shooting star)
Metroite
The remains of a large meteor that could not burn up and crashes to the ground.
11. Phases of the moon
Over a period of 4 week the amount of illuminated surface of the moon we see ( called phases) follows a predictable patters
The 8 phase make up the Lunar cycle
Begins with the New moon ( we cannot see)
Moves to a waxing crescent
The first quarter
Waxing gibbous
Full moon
Waning gibbous
Third quarter
Waning crescent
Wax = Increase in size
Wan = Decrease in size
Eclipse = Darkening of a celestial object due to the positioning of another celestial object
Lunar Eclipse: When earth is between the sun and moon ; the moon appears orange or red
Total LE : Entire moon s in earth's shadow
Partial LE: Only part of the moon is in earth's shadow
Solar Eclipse: When the moon is between the earth and the sun; on possible during the new moon phase
Total SE: can see the outer atmosphere of the sun and the corona
Partial SE: Moon does not cover the entire sun
Tides: The alternate rising and falling of the surface of large bodies of water; caused by the interaction between Earth, the Moon, and the Sun
12. Galaxies
Galaxy: Huge rotating collection of gas, dust and billions of stars, planets, and other celestial objects
4 types:
Spiral
Spinning pinwheels, central bulge of stars. 2-4 spiral arms and made up of gas and dust/ young stars. (ex. The milky way is a barred spiral galaxy)
Irregular
No definite shape and composed of more gas, dust and millions - billions of sars
Elliptical
Most galaxies, spherical or flat oval. Composed of little gas and dust with young stars
Lenticular
Flattened disk with a central bulge and composed of old red stars.
13. Layers of the sun
The sun is an enormous ball of hot glowing gases. ( 75% hydrogen, 25% helium, small % of other gases). Rotates about one every 27 days and is approx. 5 billion years old
Layers:
Core: Hottest part of the sun. The energy released by the ongoing nuclear fusion continues to move outward until it reaches the photosphere ( 15,000,000 degrees celsius)
Radiative Zone: First layer that surrounds the core
The convective zone is the next layer where hotter substances rise as colder substances fall. Energy continues to move outward until it reaches the photosphere,
The Photosphere : where light and other types of radiation escape with a temperature of 5500 °C.
The Sun’s atmosphere. It is divided into two layers: the chromosphere and the corona.
Chromosphere ( Inner): 65 500 degrees celsius
Corona: Gleaming white halo like, extends millions of kilometres into space
14. Solstice vs Equinoix
Solstice: an event that occurs two times each year when the tilt of the earth's axis is most inclined toward or away from the sun ( winter { Dec.22) and Summer{June22})
Equinox: The time of the year when the hours of daylight equals the hours of darkness
15. How the sun determines seasons
Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from the vertical which then causes the change in seasons
When the northern hemisphere is titled towards the sun the sunlight spreads over a smaller area so there is an intense heating fo this area ( likewise for southern hemisphere, western hemisphere, and eastern hemisphere)
16. Azimuth & Altitude
Azimuth: The distance measured from the north along the horizon to a point directly below the celestial object. North has an azimuth 0°, east has an azimuth 90°, south has an azimuth 180°, west has an azimuth of 270°
Altitude: the angular height of a celestial object measured from the horizon.
17. Longitude & Latitude
the angular distance of a place east or west of the meridian at Greenwich, England, or west of the standard meridian of a celestial object, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
a geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on the Earth's surface, measured in degrees, from 0° at the equator to 90° at the North and South poles
18. Revolution and Rotation
Earth rotates on its axis and completes on rotation every 24 hours(1 day) in an west to est direction
Geocentric model believes that the sun and planets rotate around earth
The Heliocentric model believes that earth and other plants revolve around the sun. This is the model we use today
Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical path
Orbital Period: Time it takes to complete on full revolution ( trip around the sun); approx 365.25 for earth. Revolves counter clockwise
Orbital Radius: The average distance between an object in the solar system and the sun
Earth's OR changes as it completes its orbit
19. Stars and their characteristics
4 types of stars:
Main sequence ( where a majority of a star's life is lived)
Red Giant Stars 9 occurs one a star has used up all of its hydrogen fuel it its core and transitions off the main sequence to be a red giant)
White Dwarfs ( The remnant of a star's or as it cools. However technically a star does not undergo nuclear effusion or rather a stellar remnant.
Neyrton Stars ( also a stellar remnant, and then a massive star reaches the end of its life it undergoes a supernova explosion leaving behind its incredibly dense core
Luminosity : The total amount of energy produced by a star per second.
Measured by comparing with the luminosity of the sun which has a luminosity of 1 ( L☉)
The brightness of a star depends both on its luminosity and its distance from the observer)
Apparent Magnitude: The brightness of stars in the night sky as they appear from earth
Brightest Stars - Magnitude 1
Faintest stars - Magnitude 6
Absolute Magnitude: The brightness of stars if they were are located 33ly from earth
Gives better idea of the actual luminosity of a celestial object
The smaller the magnitude number the brighter the celestial object
The color of a star gives an indication of its surface temperature
A spectrograph is device used ti split energy into patterns f colours and since each star as a unique spectrum, we can use the spectrum to determine the temperature and elements in the star
The mass of the sun is 2x10 (30) Kg but referred to as 1 solar mass when comparing other stars
M☉
Bigger stars can have smaller solar masses and smaller stars can have larger solar masses and as such size does not depict mass.
20. Space Technologies
Space Tools
Canadarm : a 15.2 metre long robotic arm designed and built by Canadians and in use since 1981.
This arm works with the dexterity of a human one and its skin is made up of titanium metal, stainless steel, and graphite. An insulating blanket protects these metals from the extreme heat or cold of space.
Attached to a shuttle, the Canadarm is used like a construction crane to lift parts, capture and deploy satellites, and assist astronauts moving in space.
Next generation arm: Also known as Canadarm 2,this is a more technologically sophisticated canadarm
Has one moe join than the canadarm and can work in tandem with the original canadarm which is attached to every space shuttle
At 18 m in length, the Canadarm2 can manipulate 115 tonnes of equipment, transfer cargo from space shuttles, can crawl along the ISS, capture satellites, and assemble pieces
to build and maintain the ISS
DEXTRE : a dexterous, manipulator; a two-armed robot that is used to do construction and repair work on the outside of the orbiting space station
Since telescopes and satellites are used to collect data, it is similar to how DEXTRE aims to help space exploration
Telesurgery :the practice of a surgeon performing an operation on a patient who is in a different location, using robotic systems and telecommunications technology.
Relate bacc to dextre and Canadarm because those technologies are used to assist in lifting and accepting the equipment required . Furthermore DEXTRes own remote programming may be useful for resurgery programming/
Space technology spinoffs (all of 10.3- such as spacesuits, tools, gps, RADARSAT,SCISAT, etc.)
Gps: Global positioning system is a satellite based navigation tool that detects signals to determine locations
RADARSAT:Canada’s first series of remote sensing Earth observation satellites; helps geographers and scientists to study antarctica and use globally for surveillance
SCISAT: canadian satellite used to monitor earths environment; can mesure ozone levels in hearts atmosphere