master doc of terms apush

• Tenochtitlán- the capital of the Aztec empire
• Aztec- An empire in what today is Mexico. It had a centralized government, and grandeur with its great temple, splendid royal palace, and central market.
• Great League of Peace- 12 an alliance between five Iroquois people, the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Onondaga, that brought stability to the present day New York and Pennsylvania area. Representatives from the five groups often met to coordinate behavior towards outsiders.
• Caravel- a 15th century European ship capable of long distance travel
• Reconquista- the reconquest of Spain from the Moors completed by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in 1492.
• Conquistadores- Spanish explorers, who travel to the New World for reasons of wealth, national glory, and the desire to spread their religion Christianity.
• Columbian Exchange- the transatlantic flow of goods and people that began with Columbus‘s voyages in 1492.
• Creoles- People of European ancestry that were born in the Spanish’s colonies. Also known as creoles
• Hacienda- Large-scale farms, where Spanish landlords forced tens of thousands of Indians to work in gold or silver minds to supply the Spanish empire's wealth.
• Mestizo- people of mixed origin resulting from the intermarriage between Europeans and the native peoples.
• Ninety-five Theses- A list of accusations written by German priest Martin Luther in 1517 bringing to light the abuses of the church with their sale of indulgences.
• Bartolomé de las Casas- a Dominican priest, who believed the natives were being mistreated by Spain. He insisted that native were rational beings, not barbarians, and proclaimed that “the entire human race is one.”
• Repartimiento System- a system Spain instituted that allowed residents of Indian villages to legally remain free and entitled to wages, but we’re still required to do a certain amount of labor every year. It was replaced by the Encomienda system in 1550.
• Black Legend- the image of Spain as a uniquely brutal and exploitation colonizer.
• Pueblo Revolt- An uprising in 1660 where the Pueblo Indians temporarily drove Spanish colonists out of modern-day Mexico. The revolt arose from the oppressions. The Indians suffered under Spanish rule.
• Indentured Servants- Foreign workers that the French used in their Canadian colonies that would work in the colony for however long their contract said. 80% of these workers were men.
• Métis- Children of marriages between any native woman and French traders
• Borderland- A meeting place of peoples where geographical and cultural borders are not clearly defined. An example is the upper Great Lakes in New France.
• Virginia company- A private business organization whose shareholders included merchants, aristocrats, and members of the Parliament, and to which the queen had given her blessing before her death in 1603.
• Roanoke colony- The first English settlement in the New World was on the island of Roanoke, off the coast of North Carolina, established in 1587. Virginia Dare, the first English child born in America was born on Roanoke Island. The settlement failed, and no one knows what became of the people who first settled there.
• Enclosure movement- The process by which landlords sought profits by raising sheep for the expanding trade in wool and introducing more modern farming practices such as crop rotation. They evicted small farmers and fenced in "commons" previously open to all.
• John Smith- Helped found and govern Jamestown. His leadership and strict discipline helped the Virginia colony get through the difficult first winter.
• Headright system- Headrights were parcels of land consisting of about 50 acres which were given to colonists who brought indentured servants into America. They were used by the Virginia Company to attract more colonists.
• House of burgesses- In 1619 the London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly known as the House of Burgesses. This assemblage was the first of many miniature parliaments in America.
• Uprising of 1622- Powhatan rose against the English. The Indian Massacre of 1622 took place in the English Colony of Virginia on Friday, 22 March 1622. Chief Opechancanough led a coordinated series of surprise attacks of the Powhatan Confederacy that killed 347 people, a quarter of the English population of Jamestown.
• Dower rights- A woman's claim to 1/3 of her husband's property in the event that he died before she did.
• Puritans- English religious group that sought to purify the Church of England; founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony under John Winthrop in 1630.
• John winthrop- Led a group of English Puritans to the New World, joined the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1629 and was elected their governor on April 8, 1630. Between 1639 and 1648 he was voted out of governorship and re-elected a total of 12 times.
• Pilgrims- Puritan Separatists who broke completely with the Church of England and sailed to the New World aboard the Mayflower, founding Plymouth Colony on Cape Cod in 1620.
• Mayflower compact- 1620 - The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony.
• Great migration- Large-scale migration of southern blacks during and after World War I to the North, where jobs had become available during the labor shortage of the war years.
• Dissenters- Individuals who criticized the church or government, complained about the colony in letters home to England, and in the case of one woman, for being a "very burdensome woman." Basically anyone who didn't conform to Puritan values.
• Captivity narratives- Narratives published by those captured by Indians. The most popular was "The Sovereignty and Goodness of God" by Mary Rowlandson.
• Pequot war- There was conflict between the white population and the Indians. At the turning point, a fur trader was killed by Pequots. A force of Connecticut and Massachusetts soldiers surrounded the main Pequot fortified village and set it on fire.
• Half-way covenant- The half-way covenant of 1662 allowed for the baptism and a kind of subordinate, or "half-way" membership for grandchildren of those who emigrated during the Great Migration.
• English liberty- A Puritan compromise allowing for the baptism and a subordinate church membership for grandchildren of those who emigrated during the Great Migration.
• Act concerning religion- Adopted in Maryland in 1649; institutionalized the principle of toleration that had prevailed from the colony's beginning.
• Metacom- Known to the colonists as King Philip, sachem to the Wampanoag people
• King Philip’s War- Produced a broadening of freedom for white New Englanders by expanding their access to land.
• Mercantilism- Theory in which the government should regulate economic activity so as to promote national power.
• Navigation Act- Aimed to wrestle the control of world trade from the Dutch, whose merchants profited from free trade with all parts of the world and all existing empires.
• Covenant Chain- Sir Edmund Andros, who had been appointed governor of New York, formed this alliance. Imperial ambitions of the English and Indians reinforced one another.
• Yamasee uprising- Almost 10,000 enslaved Florida Indians. Alarmed by the enormous debt that had incurred in trade with settlers and by slave traders' raids into their territory, rebelled.
• Society of friends- Quakers, which William Penn was a devout member of. Refuge for coreligionists.
• Plantation- a large farm, dominant source of income for the Southern colonies, slaves worked here
• Bacon’s rebellion- 1661, Virginia indetured servant was accused of planning an uprising among those "who would be for liberty and free from bondage."
• Glorious revolution- Established parliamentary supremacy once and for all and secured the Protestant succession to the throne.
• English Bill of Rights- To justify the ouster of James II, Parliament enacted this bill. Listed parliamentary powers such as control over taxation as well as rights of individuals, including trial by jury.
• Lords of Trade- 1675, England established to oversee colonial affairs.
• Dominion of New England- James II between 1686 and 1688 combined Connecticut, Plymouth, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, and East and West Jersey into a single super-colony, called the Dominion of New England. Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros.
• English Toleration Act- 1690, allowed Protestant Dissenters (but not Catholics) to worship freely, although only Anglicans could hold public office.
• Salem Witch Trials- 1961, accusations of witchcraft, a series of trials and executions which took place in Salem.
• Redemptioners- As indentured families were known.
• Walking purchase- 1737, brought the fraudulent dealing so common in other colonies to Pennsylvania. Lenni Lanape Indians agreed to an arrangment to cede a tract of land bounded by the distance a man could walk in thirty-six hours.
• Backcountry- Area occupied by a flood of German and Scotch-Irish settlers which upset the once peaceful Indian-white relations.
• Staple crops- tobacco and rice for example, produced by plantations for the world market
• Atlantic slave trade 128- 7.7 million slaves were transported to the New World, regularized business for for European merchants, African traders, and American planters
• Middle passage 130- the trip for Atlantic slaves from Africa to America, slaves did not live in good conditions while being transported.
• Yeoman farmers 138- small landowners, mostly white families, who farm store on land, and usually didn’t own slaves.
• Stono rebellion 139- a slave uprising in 1739 in South Carolina that led to a severe tightening of the slave code in the temporary imposition of a prohibitive tax on slaves that were imported.
• Republicanism 141- celebrated active participation in public life by economically independent citizens as the essence of liberty and assumed that only property owning citizens possessed “virtue”, the willingness to subordinate and self interest to the pursuit of the public good.
• Liberalism 142- believed in the protection of the security of life, liberty, and property required shielding the old realm of private life and personal concerns like family relations, religious preference, and economic activity from interference from the state.
• Salutary neglect 145- informal British policy during the first half of the 18th century that allowed the American colonies considerable freedom to pursue their economic and political interests in exchange for colonial obedience.
• Enlightenment 148- revolution in thought that emphasized reason and science over the authority of traditional religion.
• Deism 149- applied to religion; emphasized reason, morality, and natural law.
• Great Awakening 149- religious revival movement in the 1720s-40s spread by ministers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
• Father Junipero Serra 154- missionary, who began and directed the California mission system, presided over the conversion of many Indians Christianity, but also engaged them in forced labor.
• Middle ground 156- a borderland between European empires and Indian sovereignty. We are various native peoples, and Europeans lift side-by-side in relative harmony.
• Seven years war 157- I the last of four colonial wars fought between England and France for control east of the Mississippi River.
• French and Indian war 157- also known as the seven years war, the English won, fought between the French and English for possession of the Ohio Valley area.
• Pontiac’s rebellion 159- an Indian attack on British forts and settlements after the French ceded to the British its territory east of the Mississippi river as part of the treaty of Paris in 1763.
• Neolin 159- a Native American religious prophet who helped inspire Pontiac’s rebellion by preaching Indian unity and rejection of European technology and commerce.
• Proclamation of 1763 161- royal directive issue to ask for the French and Indian war that prohibited settlement, surveys, and land grants west of the Appalachian Mountains, made westward-moving colonists unhappy.
• Albany Plan of Union 164- a failed 1754 proposal by the seven northern colonies in anticipation of the French and Indian war, urging the unification of the colonies under one crown-appointed president.
• Stamp Act- Parliament's 1765 requirement that revenue stamps be affixed to all colonial printed matter, documents, and playing cards; the Stamp Act Congress met to formulate a response, and the act was repealed the following year.
• Virtual representation- The idea that the American colonies, although they had no actual representative in Parliament, were "virtually" represented by all members of Parliament.
• Writs of assistance-One of the colonies' main complaints against Britain; the writs allowed unlimited search warrants without cause to look for evidence of smuggling.
• Sugar act- 1764 decision by Parliament to tax refined sugar and many other colonial products.
• “No taxation without representation”- The rallying cry of opponents to the 1765 Stamp Act. The slogan decried the colonists' lack of representation in Parliament.
• Committee of correspondence- Group organized by Samuel Adams in retaliation for the Gaspée incident to address American grievances, assert American rights, and form a network of rebellion.
• Sons of liberty- Organizations formed by Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and other radicals in response to the Stamp Act.
• Regulators- Groups of backcountry Carolina settlers who protested colonial policies.
• Townshend acts- 1767 parliamentary measures (named for the chancellor of the Exchequer) that taxed tea and other commodities, and established a Board of Customs Commissioners and colonial vice-admiralty courts.
• Boston massacre- Clash between British soldiers and a Boston mob, March 5, 1770, in which five colonists were killed.
• Crispus Attucks- During the Boston Massacre, the individual who was supposedly at the head of the crowd of hecklers and who baited the British troops. He was killed when the British troops fired on the crowd.
• Boston Tea Party- The incident on December 16, 1773, in which the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Indians, dumped hundreds of chests of tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act of 1773. Under the Tea Act, the British exported to the colonies millions of pounds of cheap-but still taxed -tea, thereby undercutting the price of smuggled tea and forcing payment of the tea duty.
• Intolerable Acts- Four parliamentary measures in reaction to the Boston Tea Party that forced payment for the tea, disallowed colonial trials of British soldiers, forced their quartering in private homes, and reduced the number of elected officials in Massachusetts.
• Continental Congress- First meeting of representatives of the colonies, held in Philadelphia in 1774 to formulate actions.
• Battles of Lexington and Concord- The first shots fired in the Revolutionary War, on April 19, 1775, near Boston; approximatelv 100 minutemen and 250 British soldiers were killed.
• Battle of Bunker Hill- First major battle of the Revolutionary War; it actually took place at nearby Breed's Hill, Massachusetts on June 17, 1775.
• Continental army- Army authorized by the Continental Congress in 1775 to fight the British; commanded by General George Washington.
• Lord Dunmore’s proclamation- A proclamation issued in 1775 by the earl of Dunmore, the British governor of Virginia, that offered freedom to any slave who fought for the king against the rebelling colonists.
• Common Sense- A pamphlet anonymously written by Thomas Paine in January 1776 that attacked the English principles of hereditary rule and monarchical government.
• Declaration of Independence- Document adopted on July 4, 1776, that made the break with Britain official; drafted by a committee of the Second Continental Congress, including principal writer Thomas Jefferson.
• Hessians- German soldiers, most from Hesse-Cassel principality (hence, the name), paid to fight for the British in the Revolutionary War.
• Battle of Saratoga- Major defeat of British general John Burgoyne and more than 5,000 British troops at Saratoga, New York, on October 17, 1777.
• Benedict Arnold- A traitorous American commander who planned to sell out the American garrison at West Point to the British. His plot was discovered before it could be executed and he joined the British army.
• Battle of Yorktown- Last battle of the Revolutionary War; Cem eral Lord Charles Cornwallis along with over 7,000 British troops surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, on October 17, 1781.
• Treaty of Paris- Signed on September 3, 1783, the treaty that ended the Revolutionary War, recognized American independence from Britain, established the border between Canada and the United States, fixed the western border at the Mississippi River, and ceded Florida to Spain.
• Republic- Representative political system in which citizens govern themselves by electing representatives, or legislators. to make key decisions on the citizens' behalf.
• Suffrage- The right to vote
• Inflation- A Virginia law, drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1777 and enacted in 1786, that guarantees freedom of, and from, religion.
• Free trade- The belief that economic development arises from the exchange of goods between different countries without governmental interference.
• The Wealth of Nations- The 1776 work by economist Adam Smith that argued that the "invisible hand" of the free market directed economic life more effectively and fairly than governmental intervention.
• Loyalists- Colonists who remained loyal to Great Britain during the War of Independence.
• Joseph Brant- The Mohawk leader who led the Iroquois against the Americans in the Revolutionary War.
• Abolition- Social movement of the pre-Civil War era that advocated the immediate emancipation of the slaves and their incorporation into American society as equal citizens.
• Freedom petitions- Arguments for liberty presented to New England's courts and legislatures in the early 1770s by enslaved African-Americans.
• Lemuel haynes- A black member of the Massachusetts militia and celebrated minister who urged that Americans extend their conception of freedom to enslaved Africans during the Revolutionary Era.
• Free blacks- African-American persons not held in slavery; immediately before the Civil War, there were nearly a half million in the United States, split almost evenly between North and South.
• Coverture- Principle in English and American law that a married woman lost her legal identity, which became "covered" by that of her husband, who therefore controlled her person and the family's economic resources.
• Republican motherhood- The ideology that emerged as a result of American independence where women played an indispensable role by training future citizens.
• Articles of Confederation- 1st frame of government for the US, 1781-88, provided for a weak central authority, replaced by Constitution
• Ordinance of 1784- Law by T. Jefferson that regulated land ownership and defined terms of western land marketing and settlement, established stages of self-government for the West
• Ordinance of 1785- law regulating land sales in the Old Northwest, surveyed land was divided into 640 acre plots at $1 per acre
• Northwest ordinance of 1787- law that created the Northwest Territory, set conditions for self-government and statehood, included Bill of Rights and prohibited slavery
• Empire of liberty- the US would not rule its new territories as colonies but as full member states
• Shays’s rebellion- Daniel Shay sought debt relief through issuance of paper currency and lower taxes
• Constitutional Convention- 12 colonial representatives met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation and eventually make new Constitution in May 25-September 17, 1787
• Virginia Plan- Virginia delegation’s plan for a house legislature appointed by population for a strong central government
• New Jersey Plan- New Jersey delegation’s plan for a house legislature with representatives from each colony for a strong central government
• Federalism- a system of government where power is divided between central and state
• Division of powers- division of political power btwn the state and federal governments under the Constitution
• Checks and balances- A systematic balance to prevent any one branch of the national government from dominating the other two.
• separation of powers- Feature of the U.S. Constitution, sometimes called "checks and balances," in which power is divided between executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the national government so that no one can dominate the other two and endanger citizens' liberties.
• three-fifths clause- A provision signed into the Constitution in 1787 that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted in determining each state's representation in the House of Representatives and its electoral votes for president.
• The Federalist- Collection of eighty-five essays that appeared in the New York press in 1787-1788 in support of the Constitution; written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay and published under the pseudonym "Publius."
• Anti-Federalists- Opponents of the Constitution who saw it as a limitation on individual and states' rights; their demands led to the addition of a Bill of Rights to the document.
• Bill of Rights- First ten amendments to the U.S. Constitu-tion. adopted in 1791 to guarantee individual rights against infringement by the federal government.
• Treaty of Greenville- 1795 treaty under which twelve Indian tribes ceded most of Ohio and Indiana to the federal govern-ment, and which also established the "annuity" system.
• Annuity system- System of yearly payments to Native American tribes by which the federal government justified and institutionalized its interference in Indian tribal affairs.
• Gradual emancipation- A series of acts passed in state legislatures throughout the North in the years following the Revolution that freed slaves after they reached a certain age, following lengthy "apprenticeships."
• Letters from an American farmer- 1782 book by Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur that popularized the notion that the United States was a "melting pot" while excluding people of color from the process of assimilation.
• Open immigration- American immigration laws under which nearly all white people could immigrate to the United States and become naturalized citizens.
• Notes on the State of Virginia- Thomas Jefferson's 1785 book that claimed, among other things, that black people were incapable of becoming citizens and living in harmony alongside white people due to the legacy of slavery and what Jefferson believed were the "real distinctions that nature has made" between races.
• Bank of the US- Proposed by the first secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton, the bank that opened in 1791 and operated until 1811 to issue a uniform currency, make business loans and collect tax monies. The second bank of the United States was chartered in 1816, but President Andrew Jackson vetoed the recharter bill in 1832.
• Impressment- The British navy's practice of using press-gangs to kidnap men in British and colonial ports who were then forced to serve in the British navy.
• Jay’s Treaty-Treaty with Britain negotiated in 1794 by Chief Justice John Jay; Britain agreed to vacate forts in the Northwest Territories, and festering disagreements (border with Canada, prewar debts, shipping claims) would be settled by commission.
• Federalists & Republicans-The two increasingly coherent political parties that appeared in Congress by the mid-1790s.The Federalists, led by George Washington, John Adams, and Alexander Hamilton, favored a strong central government.The Republicans, first identified during the early nineteenth century, supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution, which they believed would safeguard individual freedoms and states' rights from the threats posed by a strong central government.
• Whiskey Rebellion-Violent protest by western Pennsylvania farmers against the federal excise tax on whiskey in 1794.
• Democratic-republican societies-Organizations created in the mid-1790s by opponents of the policies of the Washington administration and supporters of the French Revolution.
• Judith Sargent Murray-a writer and early feminist thinker prominent in the years following the American Revolution.
• XYZ Affair-Affair in which French foreign minister Talley-rand's three anonymous agents demanded payments to stop French plundering of American ships in 1797; refusal to pay the bribe was followed by two years of undeclared sea war with France (1798-1800).
• Alien & Sedition Acts- Four measures passed in 1798 during the undeclared war with France that limited the freedoms of speech and press and restricted the liberty of noncitizens.
• VA & KY resolutions-Legislation passed in 1798 and 1799 by the Virginia and the Kentucky legislatures; written by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, the resolutions advanced the state-compact theory of the Constitution. Virginia's resolution called on the federal courts to protect free speech. Jefferson's draft for Kentucky stated that a state could nullify federal law, but this was deleted.
• Revolution of 1800- First time that an American political party surrendered power to the opposition party; Jefferson, a Republican, had defeated incumbent Adams, a Federalist, for president.
• Haitian Revolution- slave uprising that led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent country in 1804.
• Gabriel’s Rebellion- An 1800 uprising planned by Virginian slaves to gain their freedom. The plot was led by a blacksmith named Gabriel, but was discovered and quashed.
• Marbury v. Madison- First U.S. Supreme Court decision to declare a federal law, the Judiciary Act of 1801, unconstitutional.
• Louisiana Purchase- President Thomas Jefferson's 1803 purchase from France of the important port of New Orleans and 828,000 square miles west of the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains; it more than doubled the territory of the United States at a cost of only $15 million.
• Lewis & Clark expedition- Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, a mission to the Pacific coast commissioned for the purposes of scientific and geographical exploration.
• Barbary Wars- The first wars fought by the United States, and the nation's first encounter with the Islamic world. The wars were fought from 1801 to 1805 against plundering pirates off the Mediterranean coast of Africa after President Thomas Jefferson's refusal to pay them tribute to protect American ships.
• Embargo Act- Attempt in 1807 to exert economic pressure by prohibiting all exports from the United States, instead of waging war in reaction to continued British impressment of American sailors; smugglers easily circumvented the embargo, and it was repealed two years later.
• Tecumseh & Tenskwatawa- Tecumseh-a leader of the Shawnee tribe who tried to unite all Indians into a confederation to resist white encroachment on their lands. His beliefs and leadership made him seem dangerous to the American government. He was killed at the Battle of the Thames. His brother, Tenskwatawa-a religious prophet who called for complete separation from whites, the revival of traditional Indian culture, and resistance to federal policies.
• War of 1812- War fought with Britain, 1812-1814, over issues that included impressment of American sailors, interference with shipping, and collusion with Northwest Territory Indians; settled by the Treaty of Ghent in 1814.
• Fort McHenry- Fort in Baltimore Harbor unsuccessfully bombarded by the British in September 1814; Francis Scott Key, a witness to the battle, was moved to write the words to "The Star-Spangled Banner."
• Battle of New Orleans- last battle of the War of 1812, fought on January 8, 1815, weeks after the peace treaty was signed but prior to the news reaching America; General Andrew Jackson led the victorious American troops.
• Hartford Convention- Meeting of New England Federalists on December 15, 1814, to protest the War of 1812; proposed seven constitutional amendments (limiting embargoes and changing requirements for officeholding, declaration of war, and admission of new states), but the war ended before Congress could respond.
• steamboats (p. 309)- Paddlewheelers that could travel both up- and down-river in deep or shallow waters; they became commercially viable early in the nineteenth century and soon developed into America's first inland freight and passenger service network.
• Erie Canal (p. 309)- Most important and profitable of the canals of the 1820s and 1830s; stretched from Buffalo to Albany, New York, connecting the Great Lakes to the East Coast and making New York City the nation's largest port.
• Cotton Kingdom (p. 316)- Cotton-producing region, relying predominantly on slave labor, that spanned from North Carolina west to Louisiana and reached as far north as southern Illinois.
• cotton gin (p. 316)- created by Eli Whitney, separated cotton seed from cotton fiber, speeding cotton processing and making profitable the cultivation of the more hardy, but difficult to clean, short-staple cotton; led directly to the dramatic nineteenth-century expansion of slavery in the South.
• Porkopolis (p. 319)- nickname of Cincinnati, coined in the mid-nineteenth century after its numerous slaughterhouses.
• American system of manufactures (p. 322)- system of production that relied on the mass production of interchangeable parts that could be rapidly assembled into standardized finished products. First perfected in Connecticut by clockmaker Eli Terry and by small-arms producer Eli Whitney in the 1840s and 50s.
• mill girls (p. 324)- Women who worked at textile mills during the Industrial Revolution who enjoyed new freedoms and independence not seen before.
• nativism (p. 327)- Anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic feeling especially prominent in the 1830s through the 1850s; the largest group of its proponents was New York's Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, which expanded into the American (Know-Nothing) Party in 1854.
• Dartmouth College v. Woodward (p. 328)- 1819 U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the original charter of the college against New Hampshire's attempt to alter the board of trust-ees; set the precedent of support of contracts against state interference.
• Gibbons v. Ogden (p. 328)- 1824 U.S. Supreme Court decision reinforcing the "commerce clause" (the federal government's right to regulate interstate commerce) of the Constitution; Chief Justice John Marshall ruled against the State of New York's granting of steamboat monopolies.
• Commonwealth v. Hunt (p. 329)- Landmark 1842 ruling of the Massachusetts Supreme Court establishing the legality of labor unions.
• manifest destiny (p. 329)- Phrase first used in 1845 to urge annexation of Texas; used thereafter to encourage American settlement of European colonial and Indian lands in the Great Plains and the West and, more generally, as a justification for the American empire.
• transcendentalists (p. 330)- Philosophy of a small group of mid-nineteenth-century New England writers and thinkers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller; they stressed personal and intellectual self-reliance.
• Second Great Awakening (p. 334)- Religious revival movement of the early decades of the nineteenth century, in reaction to the growth of secularism and rationalist religion; began the predominance of the Baptist and Methodist Churches.
• individualism (p. 336)- Term that entered the language in the 1820s to describe the increasing emphasis on the pursuit of personal advancement and private fulfillment free of outside interference.
• Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (p. 336)- Religious sect founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith; it was a product of the intense revivalism of the "burned-over district" of New York. Smith's successor Brigham Young led 15,000 followers to Utah in 1847 to escape persecution.
• cult of domesticity (p. 339)- The nineteenth-century ideology of "virtue" and "modesty" as the qualities that were essential to proper womanhood.
• family wage (p. 341)- Idea that male workers should earn a wage sufficient to enable them to support their entire family without their wives' having to work outside the home.
• the Dorr War (p. 348)- A movement in Rhode Island against property qualifications for voting. The movement formed an extralegal constitutional convention for the state and elected Thomas Dorr as a governor, but was quashed by federal troops dispatched by President John Tyler.
• Democracy in America (P. 349)- Two works, pubished in 835 and 1840, De the French thinker Alexis de Tocqueville on the subject of American democracy. Tocqueville stressed the culture nature of American democracy, and the importance and prevalence of American life.
• franchise (p. 352)- the right to vote
• American System (p. 354)-Program of internal improvements and protective tariffs promoted by Speaker of the House Henry Clay in his presidential campaign of 1824: his proposals formed the core of Whig ideology in the 1830s and 1840s.
• tariff of 1816 (p. 354)- first true protective tariff, intended to protect certain American goods against foreign competition.
• Panic of 1819 (p. 355)-Financial collapse brought on by sharply falling cotton prices, declining demand for American exporting rockless western land speculation.
• McCulloch v. Maryland (P. 356)- 1819 U.S. Supreme Court decision in which Chief Justice John Marshall, holding that Maryland could not tax the Second Bank of the United States, supported the authority of the federal government versus the states.
• Era of Good Feelings (p. 356)- Contemporary characterization of the administration of popular Republican president James Mon-roe, 1817-1825.
• Missouri Compromise (p. 357)- Deal proposed by Kentucky senator Henry Clay in 1820 to resolve the slave/free imbalance in Congress that would result from Missouri's admission as a slave state; Maine's admission as a free state offset Missouri, and slavery was prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Territory north of the southern border of Missouri.
• Monroe Doctrine (p. 361)- President James Monroe's declaration to Congress on December 2, 1823, that the American continents would be thenceforth closed to European colonization, and that the United States would not interfere in European affairs.
• spoils system (p. 368)- The term meaning the filling of federal government jobs with persons loyal to the party of the president; originated in Andrew Tackson's first term.
• tariff of abominations (p. 371)- passed in 1828 by Parliament that taxed imported goods against foreign competition.
• Exposition and Protest (P. 372)- Document written in 1828 by Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina to protest the so-called Tariff of Abominations, which seemed to favor northern industry; introduced the concept of state interposition and became the basis for South Carolina's Nullification Doctrine of 1833.
• Webster-Hayne debate (p. 372)- Exposition and Protest Document written in 1828 by Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina to protest the so-called Tariff of Abominations, which seemed to favor northern industry; introduced the concept of state interposition and became the basis for South Carolina's Nullification Doctrine of 1833.
• nullification crisis (p. 373)- The 1832 attempt by the State of South Carolina to nullify, or invalidate within its borders, the 1832 federal tariff law. President Jackson responded with the Force Act of 1833.
• Force Act (p. 373)- 1833 legislation, sparked by the nullification crisis in South Carolina, that authorized the president's use of the army to compel states to comply with federal law.
• Indian Removal Act (p. 374)- 1830 law signed by President Andrew Jackson that permitted the negotiation of treaties to obtain the Indians lands in exchange for their relocation to what would become Oklahoma.
• Worcester v. Georgia (p. 375)- 1832 Supreme Court case that held that the Indian nations were distinct peoples who could not be dealt with by the states instead, only the federal government could negotiate with them. President Jackson refused to enforce the ruling.
• Trail of Tears (p. 376)- Cherokeesforced removal in 1838 to 1839 from Southeast to modern-day Oklahoma. 15,000 marched, and 4,000 died.
• Bank War (p. 378)- Political struggle in the early 1830s between President Jackson and financier Nicholas Biddle over the renewing of the Second Bank's charter.
• soft money and hard money (P. 379)- In the 1830s, "soft money" referred to paper currency issued by banks. "Hard money" referred to gold and silver currency--also called specie.
• pet banks (p. 379)- Local banks that received deposits while the charter of the Bank of the United States was about to expire in 1836. The choice of these banks was influenced by political and personal connections.
• Panic of 1837 (p. 380)- Beginning of major economic depression lasting about six years; touched off by a British financial eri-sis and made worse by falling cotton prices, credit and currency problems, and speculation in land, canals, and railroads.
• utopian communities (p. 426)- Ideal communities that offered innovative social and economic relationships to those who were interested in achieving salvation.
• Shakers (p. 426)- Religious sect founded by Mother Ann Lee in Eng. land. The United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing settled in Watervliet, New York, in 1774, and subsequently established eighteen additional communes in the Northeast, Indiana, and Kentucky.
• Oneida (p. 427)- Utopian community founded in 1848; the Perfectionist religious group practiced "complex marriage" under leader John Humphrey Noyes.
• Brook Farm (p. 429)- Transcendentalist commune in West Rox-bury, Massachusetts, populated from 1841 to 1847 principally by writers (Nathaniel Hawthorne, for one) and other intellectuals.
• communitarianism (p. 429)- Social reform movement of the nineteenth century driven by the belief that by establishing small communities based on common ownership of property, a less competitive and individualistic society could be developed.
• New Harmony (p. 429)- Community founded in Indiana by British industrialist Robert Owen in 1825; the short-lived New Harmony Community of Equality was one of the few nineteenth-century communal experiments not based on religious ideology.
• perfectionism (p. 431)- The idea that social ills once considered ineur. able could in fact be eliminated, popularized by the religious revivalism of the nineteenth century.
• temperance movement (p. 431)- A widespread reform movement, led by militant Christians, focused on reducing the use of alcoholic beverages.
• common school (p. 433)- Tax-supported state schools of the early nineteenth century open to all children.
• American Colonization Society (p. 435)- Organized in 1816 to encourage colonization of free blacks to Africa; West African nation of Liberia founded in 1822 to serve as a homeland for them.
• American Anti-Slavery Society (p. 437)- Founded in 1833, the organization that sought an immediate end to slavery and the establishment of equality for black Americans. It split in 1840 after disputes about the role of women within the organization and other issues.
• moral suasion (p. 439)- The abolitionist strategy that sought to end slavery by persuading both slaveowners and complicit northerners that the institution was evil.
• Uncle Tom's Cabin (p. 442)- Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 antislavery novel that popularized the abolitionist position.
• "gentlemen of property and standing" (p. 444)- Well-to-do merchants who often had commercial ties to the South and resisted abolitionism, occasionally inciting violence against its adherents.
• gag rule (p. 445)- Rule adopted by House of Representatives in 1836 prohibiting consideration of abolitionist petitions; opposition, led by former president John Quincy Adams, succeeded in having it repealed in 1844.
• Dorothea Dix (p. 446)- An important figure in increasing the public's awareness of the plight of the mentally ill. After a two-year investigation of the treatment of the mentally ill in Massachusetts, she presented her findings and won the support of leading reformers. She eventually convinced twenty states to reform their treatment of the mentally ill.
• woman suffrage (p. 448)- Movement to give women the right to vote through a constitutional amendment, spearheaded by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton's National Woman Suffrage Association.
• feminism (p. 449)- Term that entered the lexicon in the early twentieth century to describe the movement for full equality for women, in political, social, and personal life.
• Liberty Party (P. 454)- Abolitionist political party that nominated James G. Birney for president in 1840 and 1844; merged with the Free Soil Party in 1848.
• The “peculiar institution”- A phrase used by whites in the antebellum South to refer to slavery without using the word "slavery."
• Second Middle Passage- The massive trade of slaves from the upper South (Virginia and the Chesapeake) to the lower South (the Gulf states) that took place between 1820 and 1860.
• “Cotton is King”- Phrase from Senator James Henry Ham-mond's speech extolling the virtues of cotton, and, implicitly, the slave system of production that led to its bounty for the South. "King Cotton" became a shorthand for Southern political and economic power.
• Paternalism- A moral position developed during the first hair of the nineteenth century which claimed that slaves were deprived of liberty for their own "good." Such a rationalization was adopted by some slave owners to justify slavery.
• Proslavery argument- The series of arguments defending the institution of slavery in the South as a positive good, not a necessary evil. The arguments included the racist belief that black people were inherently inferior to white people, as well as the belief that slavery, in creating a permanent underclass of laborers, made freedom possible for whites. Other elements of the argument included biblical citations.
• Fugitive slaves- Slaves who escaped from their owners.
• Underground railroad- Operating in the decades before the Civil War, a clandestine system of routes and safehouses through which slaves were led to freedom in the North.
• Harriet Tubman- Abolitionist who was born a slave, escaped to the North, and then returned to the South nineteen times and guided 300 slaves to freedom.
• The Amistad- Ship that transported slaves from one port in Cuba to another, seized by the slaves in 1839. They made their way northward to the United States, where the status of the slaves became the subject of a celebrated court case; eventually most were able to return to Africa.
• Denmark Vesey’s conspiracy- An 1822 failed slave uprising in Charleston, South Carolina, purported to have been led by Denmark Vesey, a free black man.
• Nat Turner’s rebellion- Most important slave uprising in nineteenth-century America, led by a slave preacher who, with his followers, killed about sixty white persons in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1831.

Ch.13

• trusts (p. 596)- companies combined to limit competition.
• vertical integration (p. 597)-vertical integration Company's avoidance of middlemen by producing its own supplies and providing for distribution of its product.
• horizontal expansion (p. 599)-The process by which a corporation acquires or merges with its competitors.
• robber barons (p. 599)-Also known as "captains of industry"; Gilded-Age industrial figures who inspired both admiration, for their economic leadership and innovation, and hostility and fear, due to their unscrupulous business methods, repressive labor practices, and unprecedented economic control over entire industries.
• bonanza farms (p. 605)-Large farms that covered thousands of acres and employed hundreds of wage laborers in the West in the late nineteenth century.
• Battle of the Little Bighorn (p. 614)-Most famous battle of the Great Sioux War; took place in 1876 in the Montana Territory; combined Sioux and Cheyenne warriors massacred a vastly outnumbered U.S. Cavalry commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer.
• Dawes Act (p. 615)-Law passed in 1887 meant to encourage adoption of white norms among Indians; broke up tribal holdings into small farms for Indian families, with the remainder sold to white purchasers.
• Ghost Dance (p. 616)-A spiritual and political movement among Native Americans whose followers performed a ceremonial "ghost dance" intended to connect the living with the dead and make the Indians bulletproof in battles intended to restore their homelands.
• Wounded Knee massacre (p. 617)-Last incident of the Indian Wars; it took place in 1890 in the Dakota Territory, where the U.S. Cavalry killed over 200 Sioux men, women, and children.
• the Gilded Age (p. 619)-The popular but derogatory name for the period from the end of the Civil War to the turn of the century, after the title of the 1873 novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner.
• gold standard (p. 622)- Policy at various points in American history by which the value of a dollar is set at a fixed price in terms of gold (in the post-World War II era, for example, $35 per ounce of gold).
• Civil Service Act of 1883 (p. 622)-Civil Service Act of 1883 Law that established the Civil Service Commission and marked the end of the spoils system.
• Interstate Commerce Commission (p. 622)-Interstate Commerce Commission Organization established by Congress, in reaction to the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Wabash Railroad v. Illinois (1886), in order to curb abuses in the railroad industry by regulating rates.
• Sherman Antitrust Act (p. 623)-Passed in 1890, first law to restrict monopolistic trusts and business combinations; extended by the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914.
• Social Darwinism (p. 626)-Application of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to society; used the concept of the "survival of the fittest" to justify class distinctions and to explain poverty.
• liberty of contract (p. 627)-A judicial concept of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries whereby the courts overturned laws regulating labor conditions as violations of the economic freedom of both employers and employees.
• Great Railroad Strike (p. 628)-A series of demonstrations, some violent, held nationwide in support of striking railroad workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, who refused to work due to wage cuts.
• Knights of Labor (p. 629)-Founded in 1869, the first national union; lasted, under the leadership of Terence V. Powderly, only into the 1890s; supplanted by the American Federation of Labor.
• single tax (p. 631)-Concept of taxing only landowners as a remedy for poverty, promulgated by Henry George in Progress and Poverty (1879).
• Social Gospel (p. 633)- Ideals preached by liberal Protestant clergymen in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; advocated the application of Christian principles to social problems generated by industrialization.
• Haymarket Affair- Violence during an anarchist protest at Haymarket Square in Chicago on May 4, 1886; the deaths of eight, including seven policemen, led to the trial of eight anarchist leaders for conspiracy to commit murder.
• first Battle of Bull Run (p. 508)- The first land engagement of the Civil War which took place on July 21, 1861, at Manassas Junction, Virginia, and at which Union troops quickly retreated.
• second Battle of Bull Run (p. 509)- Civil War engagement that took place one year after the first Battle of Bull Run, on August 29-30, during which Confederates captured the federal supply depot at Manassas Junction, Virginia, and forced Union troops back to Washington.
• Battle of Antietam (p. 509)- One of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War, fought to a standoff on September 17, 1862, in western Maryland.
• "the contrabands" (p. 513)- Slaves who sought refuge in Union military camps or who lived in areas of the Confederacy under Union control.
• Radical Republicans (p. 514)- Group within the Republican Party in the 1850s and 1860s that advocated strong resistance to the expansion of slavery, opposition to compromise with the South in the secession crisis of 1860-1861, emancipation and arming of black soldiers during the Civil War, and equal civil and political rights for blacks during Reconstruction.
• Emancipation Proclamation (p. 516)- Declaration issued by President Abraham Lincoln; the preliminary proclamation on September 22, 1862, freed the slaves in areas under Confederate control as of January 1, 1863, the date of the final proclama-tion, which also authorized the enrollment of black soldiers into the Union army.
• Second American Revolution (p. 519)-The transformation of American government and society brought about by the Civil War.
• Ex parte Milligan (p. 523)- 1866 Supreme Court case that declared it unconstitutional to bring accused persons before military tribunals where civil courts were operating.
• Homestead Act (p. 524)- 1862 law that authorized Congress to grant 160 acres of public land to a western settler, who had to live on the land for five years to establish title.
• transcontinental railroad (p. 524)- First line across the continent from Omaha, Nebraska, to Sacramento, California, established in 1869 with the linkage of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads at Promontory, Utah.
• Navajo's Long Walk (p. 529)- The forced removal of 8,000 Navajos from their lands by Union forces to a reservation in the 1860s.
• Sanitary Fairs (p. 530)- Fund-raising bazaars led by women on behalf of Civil War soldiers. The fairs offered items such as uniforms and banners, as well as other emblems of war.
• "King Cotton diplomacy" (P. 533)- An attempt during the Civil War by the South to encourage British intervention by banning cotton exports.
• Battle of Gettysburg (p. 538)- Battle fought in southern Pennsylvania, July 1-3, 1863; the Confederate defeat and the simultaneous loss at Vicksburg marked the military turning point of the Civil War.
• Battle of Vicksburg (p. 539)- The fall of Vicksburg, Mississippi, to General Ulysses S. Grant's army on July 4, 1863, after two months of siege; a turning point in the war because it gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.
• Sea Islands experiment (p. 542)- The 1861 pre-Reconstruction social experiment that involved converting slave plantations into places where former slaves could work for wages or own land. Former slaves also received education and access to improved shelter and food.
• Ten-Percent Plan of Reconstruction (p. 542)- President Lincoln's proposal for reconstruction, issued in 1863, in which southern states would rejoin the Union if 10 percent of the 1860 electorate signed loyalty pledges, accepted emancipation, and had received presidential pardons.
• Wade-Davis Bill (p. 543)- Radical Republicans' 1864 plan for reconstruction that required loyalty oaths, abolition of slavery, repudiation of war debts, and denial of political rights to high-ranking Confederate officials; President Lincoln refused to sign the bill.
• Thirteenth Amendment (p. 543)- Constitutional amendment adopted in 1865 that irrevocably abolished slavery throughout the United States.
• Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia- Site of the surrender of Confederate general Robert E. Lee to Union general Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, marking the end of the Civil War.
• the Freedmen's Bureau (p. 557)-Reconstruction agency established in 1865 to protect the legal rights of former slaves and to assist with their education, jobs, health care, and landowning.
• sharecropping (p. 560)-Type of farm tenancy that developed after the Civil War in which landless workers often former slaves farmed land in exchange for farm supplies and a share of the сгор.
• crop lien (p. 560)-Credit extended by merchants to tenants based on their future crops; under this system, high interest rates and the uncertainties of farming often led to inescapable debts.
• Black Codes (p. 565)-Laws passed from 1865 to 1866 in southern states to restrict the rights of former slaves; to nullify the codes, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment.
• Civil Rights Bill of 1866 (p. 567)-Along with the Fourteenth Amendment, legislation that guaranteed the rights of citizenship to former slaves.
• Fourteenth Amendment (p. 568)-1868 constitutional amendment that guaranteed rights of citizenship to former slaves, in words similar to those of the Civil Rights Act of 1866.
• Reconstruction Act (P. 569)-1867 law that established temporary military governments in ten Confederate states accepting Tennessee and required that the states ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and permit freedmen to vote.
• Tenure of Office Act (p. 569)-1867 law that required the president to obtain Senate approval to remove any official whose appointment had also required Senate approval; President Andrew Johnson's violation of the law by firing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton led to Johnson's impeachment.
• impeachment (p. 569)-Bringing charges against a public official; for example, the House of Representatives can impeach a president for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors" by majority vote, and after the trial the Senate can remove the president by a vote of two-thirds.
• Fifteenth Amendment (p. 570)-Constitutional amendment ratified in 1870, which prohibited states from discriminating in voting privileges on the basis of race.
• carpetbaggers (p. 576)-Derisive term for northern emigrants who participated in the Republican governments of the Reconstruction South.
• scalawags (p. 577)-Southern white Republicans,some former Unionists who supported Reconstruction governments.
• Ku Klux Klan (p. 580)-Group organized in Pulaski, Tennessee, in 1866 to terrorize former slaves who voted and held political offices during Reconstruction; a revived organization in the 1910s and 1920s that stressed white, Anglo-Saxon, fundamentalist Protestant supremacy; revived a third time to fight the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s in the South.
• Enforcement Acts (p. 580)-Three laws passed in 1870 and 1871 that tried to eliminate the Ku Klux Klan by outlawing it and other such terrorist societies; the laws allowed the president to deploy the army for that purpose.
• Civil Rights Act of 1875 (p. 583)-The last piece of Reconstruction legislation, which outlawed racial discrimination in places of public accommodation such as hotels and theaters. Many parts of it were ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1883.
• Redeemers (p. 584)-Post-Civil War Democratic leaders who supposedly saved the South from Yankee domination and preserved the primarily rural economy.
• Bargain of 1877 (p. 585)-Deal made by a Republican and Democratic special congressional commission to resolve the disputed presidential election of 1876; Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, who had lost the popular vote, was declared the winner in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from involvement in politics in the South, marking the end of Reconstruction.
• Populists (p. 641)-Founded in 1892, a group that advocated a variety of reform issues, including free coinage of silver, income tax, postal savings, regulation of railroads, and direct election of U.S. senators.
• Coxey's Army (p. 644)-A march on Washington organized by Jacob Coxey, an Ohio member of the People's Party. Coxey believed in abandoning the gold standard and printing enough legal tender to reinvigorate the economy. The marchers demanded that Congress create jobs and pay workers in paper currency not backed by gold.
• New South (p. 648)-Atlanta Constitution editor Henry W. Grady's 1886 term for the prosperous post-Civil War South he envisioned: democratic, industrial, urban, and free of nostalgia for the defeated plantation South.
• Kansas Exodus (p. 650)-A migration in 1879 and 1880 by some 40,000-60,000 blacks to Kansas to escape the oppressive environment of the New South.
• grandfather clause (p. 651)-Loophole created by southern disenfranchising legislatures of the 1890s for illiterate white males whose grandfathers had been eligible to vote before the Civil War.
• disenfranchisement (p. 651)-To deprive of the right to vote; in the United States, exclusionary policies were used to deny groups, especially African-Americans and women, their voting rights.
• Plessy v. Ferguson (p. 652)-U.S. Supreme Court decision supporting the legality of Jim Crow laws that permitted or required "separate but equal" facilities for blacks and whites.
• "separate but equal" (p. 652)-Principle underlying legal racial segregation, upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and struck down in Brown v. Board of Education (1954).
• lynching (p. 654)-Practice, particularly widespread in the South between 1890 and 1940, in which persons (usually black) accused of a crime were murdered by mobs before standing trial. Lynchings often took place before large crowds, with law enforcement authorities not intervening.
• Lost Cause (p. 655)-A romanticized view of slavery, the Old South, and the Confederacy that arose in the decades following the Civil War.
• new immigrants (p. 656)-Wave of newcomers from southern and eastern Europe, including many Jews, who became a majority among immigrants to America after 1890.
• Immigration Restriction League (p. 657)-A political organization founded in 1894 that called for reducing immigration to the United States by requiring a literacy test for immigrants.
• Chinese Exclusion Act (p. 657)-1882 law that halted Chinese immigration to the United States.
• Atlanta Compromise (p. 659)-Speech to the Cotton States and International Exposition in 1895 by educator Booker T. Washington, the leading black spokesman of the day; black scholar W. E. B. Du Bois gave the speech its derisive name and criticized Washington for encouraging blacks to accommodate segregation and disenfranchisement.
• American Federation of Labor (p. 659)-A federation of trade unions founded in 1881, composed mostly of skilled, white, native-born workers; its long-term president was Samuel Gompers.
• yellow press (p. 666)-Sensationalism in newspaper publishing that reached a peak in the circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Fournal in the 1890s; the papers' accounts of events in Havana Harbor in 1898 led directly to the Spanish-American War.
• U.S.S. Maine (p. 666)-Battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, resulting in 266 deaths; the American pub-lic, assuming that the Spanish had mined the ship, clamored for war, and the Spanish-American War was declared two months later.
• Platt Amendment (p. 668)-1901 amendment to the Cuban constitution that reserved the United States' right to intervene in Cuban affairs and forced newly independent Cuba to host American naval bases on the island.
• Open Door Policy (p. 669)-Demand in 1899 by Secretary of State John Hay, in hopes of protecting the Chinese market for U.S. exports, that Chinese trade be open to all nations.
• Philippine War (p. 670)-American military campaign that suppressed the movement for Philippine independence after the Spanish-American War; America's death toll was over 4,000 and the Philippines' was far higher.
• Insular Cases (p. 672)-Series of cases between 1901 and 1904 in which the Supreme Court ruled that constitutional protection of individual rights did not fully apply to residents of "insular" territories acquired by the United States in the Spanish-American War, such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines.
• Anti-Imperialist League (p. 674)-Coalition of anti-imperialist groups united in 1899 to protest American territorial expansion, especially in the Philippine Islands; its membership included prominent politicians, industrialists, labor leaders, and social reformers.
• Progressivism (p. 680)- Broad-based reform movement, 1900-1917, that sought governmental action in solving problems in many areas of American life, including education, public health, the economy, the environment, labor, transportation, and politics.
• muckraking (p. 682)- Writing that exposed corruption and abuses in politics, business, meatpacking, child labor, and more, primarily in the first decade of the twentieth century; included popular books and magazine articles that spurred public interest in reform.
• Ellis Island (p. 683)- Reception center in New York Harbor through which most European immigrants to America were processed from 1892 to 1954.
• Fordism (p. 688)- Early twentieth-century term describing the economic system pioneered by Ford Motor Company based on high wages and mass consumption.
• "American standard of living" (p. 689)- The Progressive-era idea that American workers were entitled to a wage high enough to allow them full participation in the nation's mass consumption economy.
• scientific management (p. 690)- Management campaign to improve worker efficiency using measurements like "time and motion" studies to achieve greater productivity; introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor in 1911.
• Socialist Party (p. 691)- Political party demanding public ownership of major economic enterprises in the United States as well as reforms like recognition of labor unions and women's suffrage; reached peak of influence in 1912 when presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs received over 900,000 votes.
• collective bargaining (p. 693)- The process of negotiations between an employer and a group of employees to regulate working conditions.
• Industrial Workers of the World (p. 693)-Radical union organized in Chicago in 1905 and nicknamed the Wobblies; its opposition to World War I led to its destruction by the federal government under the Espionage Act.
• new feminism (p. 698)- A new aspect of the women's rights movement that arose in the early part of the twentieth century. New feminism added a focus on individual and sexual freedom to the movement, and introduced the word "feminism" into American life.
• birth control movement (p. 699)- An offshoot of the early twentieth-century feminist movement that saw access to birth control and "voluntary motherhood" as essential to women's freedom. The birth-control movement was led by Margaret Sanger.
• Society of American Indians (p. 699)-Organization founded in 1911 that brought together Native American intellectuals of many tribal backgrounds to promote discussion of the plight of Indian peoples.
• Seventeenth Amendment (p. 703)- Progressive reform passed in 1913 that required U.S, senators to be elected directly by voters; previously, senators were chosen by state legislatures.
• settlement house (p. 704)-Late-nineteenth-century movement to offer a broad array of social services in urban immigrant neighborhoods; Chicago's Hull House was one of hundreds of sega ment houses that operated by the early twentieth century.
• maternalist reforms (p. 707)-Progressive-era reforms that sought to encourage women's child-bearing and -rearing abilities and to promote their economic independence.
• Muller v. Oregon (p. 707)- 1908 Supreme Court decision that held that state interest in protecting with h could override liberty of contract. Louis D. Brandeis, with help from his sister-in-law Josephine Goldmark of the National Consumers League, filed a brief in Muller that used statistics about women's health to argue for their protection.
• Pure Food and Drug Act (p. 710)-Passed in 1906, the first law to regulate manufacturing of food and medicines; prohibited dangerous additives and inaccurate labeling.
• conservation movement (p. 711)-A progressive reform movement focused on the preservation and sustainable management of the nation's natural resources.
• Sixteenth Amendment (p. 712)-Constitutional amendment passed in 1913 that legalized the federal income tax.
• Progressive Party (p. 712)-Political party created when former president Theodore Roosevelt broke away from the Republican Party to run for president again in 1912; the party supported progressive reforms similar to those of the Democrats but stopped short of seeking to eliminate trusts. Also the name of the party backing Robert La Follette for president in 1924.
• New Freedom (p. 713)-Democrat Woodrow Wilson's political slogan in the presidential campaign of 1912; Wilson wanted to improve the banking system, lower tariffs, and, by breaking up monopolies, give small businesses freedom to compete.
• New Nationalism (p. 713)-Platform of the Progressive Party and slogan of former president Theodore Roosevelt in the presidential campaign of 1912; stressed government activism, including regulation of trusts, conservation, and recall of state court decisions that had nullified progressive programs.
• Federal Trade Commission (p. 715)-Independent agency created by the Wilson administration that replaced the Bureau of Corporations as an even more powerful tool to combat unfair trade practices and monopolies.
• Tejanos (p. 461)- Texas settlers of Spanish or Mexican descent.
• Antonio López de Santa Anna (p. 461)- Mexican ruler that sent an army to Texas and sparked the Texas Revolt.
• the Texas Revolt (p. 462)- The 1830s rebellion of residents of the territory of Texas--many of them Americans emigrants--against Mexican control of the region.
• Mexican War (p. 465)-Controversial war with Mexico for control of California and New Mexico, 1846-1848; the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo fixed the border at the Rio Grande and extended the United States to the Pacific coast, annexing more than a half-million square miles of Mexican territory.
• Gadsden Purchase (p. 466)-Thirty thousand square miles in present-day Arizona and New Mexico bought by Congress from Mexico in 1853 primarily for the Southern Pacific Railroad's transcontinental route.
• gold rush (p. 469)-The massive migration of Americans into California territory in the late 1840s and 1850s in pursuit of gold, which was discovered there in 1848.
• Commodore Matthew Perry (p. 472)-U.S. naval officer who negotiated the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. That treaty was the first step in starting a political and commercial relationship between the United States and Japan.
• Wilmot Proviso (p. 473)-Proposal to prohibit slavery in any land acquired in the Mexican War; defeated by southern sena-tors, led by John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, in 1846 and 1847.
• Free Soil Party (p. 473)-Political organization formed in 1848 to oppose slavery in the territory acquired in the Mexican War; nominated Martin Van Buren for president in 1848. By 1854 most of the party's members had joined the Republican Party.
• Compromise of 1850 (p. 476)-Complex compromise devised by Senator Henry Clay that admitted California as a free state, included a stronger fugitive slave law, and delayed determination of the slave status of the New Mexico and Utah territories.
• Fugitive Slave Act (p. 476)-1850 law that gave the federal government authority in cases involving runaway slaves; aroused considerable opposition in the North.
• popular sovereignty (p. 478)-Program that allowed settlers in a disputed territory to decide the slavery issue for themselves; most closely associated with Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois.
• Kansas-Nebraska Act (p. 479)-1854 law sponsored by Illinois senator Stephen A. Douglas to allow settlers in newly organized territories north of the Missouri border to decide the slavery issue for themselves; fury over the resulting repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 led to violence in Kansas and to the formation of the Republican Party.
• Know-Nothing Party (p. 482)-Nativist, anti-Catholic third party organized in 1854 in reaction to large-scale German and Irish immigration; the party's only presidential candidate was Millard Fillmore in 1856.
• the Slave Power (p. 483)-The Republican and abolitionist term for pro-slavery dominance of southern and national governments.
• "Bleeding Kansas" (p. 484)-Violence between pro- and antislavery settlers in the Kansas Territory, 1856.
• Dred Scott v. Sandford (p. 485)-1857 U.S. Supreme Court decision in which Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories, on the grounds that such a prohibition would violate the Fifth Amendment rights of slaveholders, and that no black person could be a citizen of the United States.
• Lincoln-Douglas debates (p. 488)-Series of senatorial campaign debates in 1858 focusing on the issue of slavery in the territories; held in Illinois between Republican Abraham Lincoln, who made a national reputation for himself, and incumbent Democratic senator Stephen A. Douglas, who managed to hold on to his seat.
• Harpers Ferry, Virginia (p. 489)-Site of abolitionist john Brown failed raid on the federal arsenal, October 16-17, 1859; Brown became a martyr to his cause after his capture and execution.
• Fort Sumter (p. 498)-First battle of the Civil War, in which the federal fort in Charleston (South Carolina) Harbor was captured by the Confederates on April 14, 1861, after two days of shelling.
• Dollar Diplomacy (p. 723)- A foreign policy initiative under President William Howard Taft that promoted the spread of American influence through loans and economic investments from American banks.
• Eighteenth Amendment (p. 735)- Prohibition amendment passed in 1919 that made illegal the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcoholic beverages; repealed in 1933.
• Espionage Act (p. 736)-1917 law that prohibited spying and interfering with the draft as well as making "false statements" that hurt the war effort.
• Fourteen Points (p. 728)- President Woodrow Wilson's 1918 plan for peace after World War I; at the Versailles peace conference, however, he failed to incorporate all of the points into the treaty.
• Great Migration (p. 747)- Large-scale migration of southern blacks during and after World War I to the North, where jobs had become available during the labor shortage of the war years.
• League of Nations (p. 752)-Organization of nations to mediate disputes and avoid war established after World War I as part of the Treaty of Versailles; President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points" speech to Congress in 1918 proposed the formation of the league, which the United States never joined.
• Lusitania (p. 726)-British passenger liner sunk by a German U-boat, May 7, 1915, creating a diplomatic crisis and public outrage at the loss of 128 Americans (roughly 10 percent of the total aboard); Germany agreed to pay reparations, and the United States waited two more years to enter World War I.
• Marcus Garvey (p. 749)-The leading spokesman for Negro Nationalism, which exalted blackness, black cultural expression, and black exclusiveness. He called upon African-Americans to liberate themselves from the surrounding white culture and create their own businesses, cultural centers, and news-papers. He was also the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association.
• National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (p. 746)-Founded in 1910, the civil rights organization that brought lawsuits against discriminatory practices and published The Crisis, a journal edited by African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois.
• Panama Canal Zone (p. 721)-The small strip of land on either side of the Panama Canal. The Canal Zone was under U.S. control from 1903 to 1979 as a result of Theodore Roosevelt's assistance in engineering a coup in Colombia that established Panama's independence.
• Red Scare of 1919-1920 (p. 751)-Fear among many Americans after World War I of Communists in particular and noncitizens in general, a reaction to the Russian Revolution, mail bombs, strikes, and riots.
• Roosevelt Corollary (p. 722)-1904 Announcement by President Theodore Roosevelt, essentially a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, that the United States would intervene militarily to prevent interference from European powers in the Western Hemisphere.
• Sedition Act (p. 736)-1918 law that made it a crime to make spoken or printed statements that criticized the U.S. government or encouraged interference with the war effort.
• Selective Service Act (p. 731)-Law passed in 1917 to quickly increase enlistment in the army for the United States' entry into World War I; required men to register with the draft.
• Tulsa riot (p. 748)- race riot in 1921-the worst in American history-that occurred in Tulsa, Oklahoma, after a group of black veterans tried to prevent a lynching. Over 300 African-Americans were killed, and 10,000 lost their homes in fires set by white mobs.
• Versailles Treaty (p. 752)-The treaty signed at the Versailles peace conference after World War I which established President Woodrow Wilson's vision of an international regulating body, redrew parts of Europe and the Middle East, and assigned economically crippling war reparations to Ger-many, but failed to incorporate all of Wilson's Fourteen Points.
• War Industries Board (p. 731)-Board run by financier Bernard Baruch that planned production and allocation of war materiel, supervised purchasing, and fixed prices, 1917-1919.
• Zimmermann Telegram (p. 728)-Telegram from the German foreign secretary to the German minister in Mexico, February 1917, instructing the minister to offer to recover Texas, New Mex-ico, and Arizona for Mexico if it would fight the United States to divert attention from Germany in the event that the United States joined the war.
• liberal internationalism (p. 720)- Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy theory, which rested on the idea that economic and political freedom went hand in hand, and encouraged American intervention abroad in order to secure these freedoms globally.
• moral imperialism (p. 724)-The Wilsonian belief that U.S. foreign policy should be guided by morality, and should teach other peoples about democracy. Wilson used this belief to both repudiate Dollar Diplomacy and justify frequent military interventions in Latin America.

Ch.20

• Adkins v. Children's Hospital (p. 774)- 1923 Supreme Court case that reversed Muller v. Oregon, the 1908 case that permitted states to set maximum hours to protect working women. Justices ruled in Adkins that women no longer deserved special treatment because they could vote.
• American Civil Liberties Union (p. 780)- Organization founded during World War I to protest the suppression of freedom of expression in wartime; played a major role in court cases that achieved judicial recognition of Americans' civil liberties.
• Equal Rights Amendment (p. 770)- Amendment to guarantee equal rights for women, introduced in 1923 but not passed by Congress until 1972; it failed to be ratified by the states.
• flappers (p. 771)- Young women of the 1920s whose rebellion against prewar standards of femininity included wearing shorter dresses, bobbing their hair, dancing to jazz music, driving cars, smoking cigarettes, and indulging in illegal drinking and gambling.
• fundamentalism (p. 782)- Anti-modernist Protestant movement started in the early twentieth century that proclaimed the literal truth of the Bible; the name came from The Fundamentals, published by conservative leaders.
• Great Depression (p. 793)- Worst economic depression in American history; it was spurred by the stock market crash of 1929 and lasted until World War II.
• Harlem Renaissance (p. 791)- African-American literary and artistic movement of the 1920s centered in New York City's Harlem neighborhood; writers Langston Hughes, Jean Toomer, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen were among those active in the movement.
• illegal alien (p. 787)- A new category established by the Immigration Act of 1924 that referred to immigrants crossing U.S. borders in excess of the new immigration quotas.
• McNary-Haugen bill (p. 774)- Vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge in 1927 and 1928, the bill to aid farmers that would have artificially raised agricultural prices by selling surpluses overseas for low prices and selling the reduced supply in the United States for higher prices.
• New Negro (p. 791)- Term used in the 1920s, in reference to a slow and steady growth of black political influence that occurred in northern cities, where African-Americans were freer to speak and act. This political activity created a spirit of protest that expressed itself culturally in the Harlem Renaissance and politically in "new Negro" nationalism.
• Reconstruction Finance Corporation (p. 797)- Federal program established in 1932 under President Herbert Hoover to loan money to banks and other institutions to help them avert bankruptcy.
• Sacco-Vanzetti case (p. 763)- A case held during the 1920s in which two Italian-American anarchists were found guilty and executed for a crime in which there was very little evidence linking them to the particular crime.
• Schenck v. United States (p. 780)- 1919 U.S. Supreme Court decision upholding the wartime Espionage and Sedition Acts; in the opinion he wrote for the case, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes set the now-familiar "clear and present danger" standard.
• Scopes trial (p. 783)- 1925 trial of John Scopes, Tennessee teacher accused of violating state law prohibiting teaching of the theory of evolution; it became a nationally celebrated confrontation between religious fundamentalism and civil liberties.
• Smoot-Hawley Tariff (p. 797)- 1930 act that raised tariffs to an unprecedented level and worsened the Great Depression by raising prices and discouraging foreign trade.
• stock market crash (p. 794)- Also known as Black Tuesday, a stock market panic in 1929 that resulted in the loss of more than $10 billion in market value (worth approximately ten times more today). One among many causes of the Great Depression.
• Teapot Dome (p. 774)- Harding administration scandal in which Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall profited from secret leasing to private oil companies of government oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California.
• Civilian Conservation Corps (p. 810)- 1933 New Deal public work relief program that provided outdoor manual work for unemployed men, rebuilding infrastructure and implementing conservation programs. The program cut the unemployment rate, particularly among young men.
• Congress of Industrial Organizations (p. 817)- Umbrella organization of semiskilled industrial unions, formed in 1935 as the Committee for Industrial Organization and renamed in 1938.
• Court packing (p. 828)- President Franklin D. Roosevelt's failed 1937 attempt to increase the number of U.S. Supreme Court justices from nine to fifteen in order to save his Second New Deal programs from constitutional challenges.
• Dust Bowl (p. 812)- Great Plains counties where millions of tons of topsoil were blown away from parched farmland in the 1930s; massive migration of farm families followed.
• Emergency Banking Act (p. 808)- Passed in 1933, the First New Deal measure that provided for reopening the banks under strict conditions and took the United States off the gold standard.
• Federal Housing Administration (p. 814)- A government agency created during the New Deal to guarantee mortgages, allowing lenders to offer long-term (usually thirty-year) loans with low down payments (usually 10 percent of the asking price). The FHA seldom underwrote loans in racially mixed or minority neighborhoods.
• House Un-American Activities Committee (p. 841)- Committee formed in 1938 to investigate subversives in the government and holders of radical ideas more generally; best-known investigations were of Hollywood notables and of former State Department official Alger Hiss, who was accused in 1948 of espionage and Communist Party membership. Abolished in 1975.
• Hundred Days (p. 808)- Extraordinarily productive first three months of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration in which a special session of Congress enacted fifteen of his New Deal proposals.
• Indian New Deal (p. 832)- Phrase that refers to the reforms implemented for Native Americans during the New Deal era. John Collier, the commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), increased the access Native Americans had to relief programs and employed more Native Americans at the BIA. He worked to pass the Indian Reorganization Act. However, the version of the act passed by Congress was a much diluted version of Collier's original proposal and did not greatly improve the lives of Native Americans.
• National Industrial Recovery Act (p. 808)- 1933 law passed on the last of the Hundred Days; it created public-works jobs through the Federal Emergency Relief Administration and established a system of self-regulation for industry through the National Recovery Administration, which was ruled unconstitutional in 1935.
• National Recovery Administration (p. 808)- Controversial federal agency created in 1933 that brought together business and labor leaders to create "codes of fair competition" and "fair labor" policies, including a national minimum wage.
• New Deal (p. 803)- Franklin D. Roosevelt's campaign promise, in his speech to the Democratic National Convention of 1932, to combat the Great Depression with a "new deal for the American people"; the phrase became a catchword for his ambitious plan of economic programs.
• Popular Front (p. 836)- A period during the mid-1930s when the Communist Party sought to ally itself with socialists and New Dealers in movements for social change, urging reform of the capitalist system rather than revolution.
• Public Works Administration (p. 810)- A New Deal agency that contracted with private construction companies to build roads, bridges, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities.
• Scottsboro case (p. 839)- Case in which nine black youths were convicted of raping two white women; in overturning the verdicts of this case, the Court established precedents in Powell v. Alabama (1932) that adequate counsel must be appointed in capital cases, and in Norris v. Alabama (1935) that African-Americans cannot be excluded from juries.
• Share Our Wealth movement (p. 819)- Program offered by Huey Long as an alterative to the New Deal. The program proposed to confiscate large personal fortunes, which would be used to guarantee every poor family a cash grant of $5,000 and every worker an annual income of $2,500. It also promised to provide pensions, reduce working hours, and pay veterans' bonuses and ensured a college education to every qualified student.
• sit-down strike (p. 817)- Tactic adopted by labor unions in the mid-and late 1930s, whereby striking workers refused to leave factories, making production impossible; proved highly effective in the organizing drive of the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
• Social Security Act (p. 822)- 1935 law that created the Social Security system with provisions for a retirement pension, unemployment insurance, disability insurance, and public assistance (welfare).
• Tennessee Valley Authority (p. 811)- Administrative body created in 1933 to control flooding in the Tennessee River valley, provide work for the region's unemployed, and produce inexpensive electric power for the region.
• Wagner Act (p. 821)- Law that established the National Labor Relations Board and facilitated unionization by regulating employment and bargaining practices.
• welfare state (p. 822)- A term that originated in Britain during World War Il to refer to a system of income assistance, health cover-age, and social services for all citizens.
• Works Progress Administration (p. 820)- Part of the Second New Deal; it provided jobs for millions of the unemployed on construction and arts projects.
• Atlantic Charter (p. 887)- Meetings in Newfoundland between President Franklin B. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill that signaled the Allies' cooperation and stated their war aims.
• Axis powers (p. 853)- In World War Il, the nations of Germany lay, and Japan.
• bracero program (p. 871)- System agreed to by Mexican and American governments in 1942 under which tens of thousands of Mexicans entered the United States to work temporarily in agricultural jobs in the Southwest; lasted until 1964 and inhibited labor organization among farm workers since braceros could be deported at any time.
• Bretton Woods conference (p. 885)- International meeting held in the town of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944 in which participants agreed that the American dollar would replace the British pound as the most important international cur-rency. The conference also created the World Bank and International Monetary Fund to promote rebuilding after WII.
• D-Day (p. 856)- June 6, 1944, when an Allied amphibious assault landed on the Normandy coast and established a foothold in Europe, leading to the liberation of France from German occupation.
• double-V (p. 879)- Led by 1be Pittsburgh Courier, the movement that pressed for victory over fascism abroad and over at home. It argued that since African-Americans were risking their lives abroad, they should receive full civil rights at home.
• Four Freedoms (p. 847)- Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear, as described by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during his January 6, 1941, State of the Union Address.
• GI Bill of Rights (p. 868)- The 1944 legislation that provided money for education and other benefits to military personnel returning from World War II.
• Good Neighbor Policy (p. 848)- Policy proclaimed by President Fate lin D. Roosevelt in his first inaugural address in 193 hat. sought improved diplomatic relations between the United States and its Latin American neighbors.
• Holocaust (p. 858)- Systematic racist attempt by the Nazis to exterminate the Jews of Europe, resulting in the murder of over 6 million Jews and more than a million other "undesirables."
• isolationism (p. 850)- The desire to avoid foreign entanglements that dominated the U.S. Congress in the 1930s; beginning in 1935. lawmakers passed a series of Neutrality Acts that banned travel on belligerents' ships and the sale of arms to countries at war.
• Japanese-American internment (p. 875)- Policy adopted by the Roosevelt administration in 1942 under which 110,000 persons of Japanese descent, most of them American citizens, were removed from the West Coast and forced to spend most of World War Il in internment camps; it was the largest violation of American civil liberties in the twentieth century.
• Korematsu v. United States (p. 876)- 1944 Supreme Court case that found Executive Order 9066 to be constitutional. Fred Korematsu, an American-born citizen of Japanese descent, defied the military order that banned all persons of Japanese ancestry from designated western coastal areas. The Court upheld Korematsu's arrest and internment.
• Lend-Lease Act (p. 852)- 1941 law that permitted the United States to lend or lease arms and other supplies to the Allies, signifying increasing likelihood of American involvement in World War II.
• Manhattan Project (p. 883)- Secret American program during World War Il to develop an atomic bomb; J. Robert Oppenheimer led the team of physicists at Los Alamos, New Mexico.
• Neutrality Acts (p. 850)- Series of laws passed between 1935 and 1939 to keep the United States from becoming involved in war by prohibiting American trade and travel to warring nations.
• Potsdam conference (p. 885)- Last meeting of the major Allied powers; the conference that took place outside Berlin from July 17 to August 2, 1945, at which U.S. president Harry Truman, Soviet dictator Stalin.
• second Great Migration (p. 877)- The movement of black migrants from the rural South to the cities of the North and West, which occurred from 1941 through World War II, that dwarfed the Great Migration of World War I.
• United Nations (p. 886)- Organization of nations to maintain world peace, established in 1945 and headquartered in New York.
• V-E Day (p. 882)- May 8, 1945, the day World War II officially ended in Europe.
• Yalta conference (p. 885)- Meeting of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at a Crimean resort to discuss the postwar world on February 4-11, 1945; Joseph Stalin claimed large areas in eastern Europe for Soviet domination.
• zoot suit riots (p. 874)- 1943 riots in which sailors on leave attacked Mexican-American youths.
• Army-McCarthy hearings (p. 915)- Televised U.S. Senate hearings in 1954 on Senator Joseph McCarthy's charges of disloyalty in the army; his tactics contributed to his censure by the Senate.
• Cold War (p. 892)- Term for tensions, 1945-1989, between the Soviet Union and the United States, the two major world powers after World War II.
• containment (p. 892)- General U.S. strategy in the Cold War that called for containing Soviet expansion; originally devised by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan.
• decolonization (p. 902)- The process by which African and Asian colonies of European empires became independent in the years following World War II.
• Dixiecrats (p. 910)- Deep South delegates who walked out of the 1948 Democratic National Convention in protest of the party's support for civil rights legislation and later formed the States' Rights Democratic (Dixiecrat) Party, which nominated Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for president.
• Fair Deal (p. 907)- Domestic reform proposals of the Truman administration; included civil rights legislation, national health insurance, and repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, but only extensions of some New Deal programs were enacted.
• Hollywood Ten (p. 914)- A group called before the House Un-American Activities Committee who refused to speak about their political leanings or "name names" —that is, identify communists in Hollywood. Some were imprisoned as a result.
• iron curtain (p. 893)- Term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the Cold War divide between western Europe and the Soviet Union's eastern European satellites.
• Korean War (p. 899)- Conflict touched off in 1950 when Communist North Korea invaded South Korea; fighting, largely by U.S. forces, continued until 1953.
• Long Telegram (p. 893)- A telegram by American diplomat George Kennan in 1946 outlining his views of the Soviet Union that eventually inspired the policy of containment.
• Marshall Plan (p. 895)- U.S. program for the reconstruction of post-World War II Europe through massive aid to former enemy nations as well as allies; proposed by General George C. Marshall in 1947.
• McCarran-Walter Act (p. 917)- Immigration legislation passed in 1952 that allowed the government to deport immigrants who had been identified as communists, regardless of whether or not they were citizens.
• McCarthyism (p. 913)- Post-World War II Red Scare focused on the fear of Communists in U.S. government positions; peaked during the Korean War; most closely associated with Joseph McCarthy, a major instigator of the hysteria.
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (p. 897)- Alliance founded in 1949 by ten western European nations, the United States, and Canada to deter Soviet expansion in Europe.
• NSC-68 (p. 897)- Top-secret policy paper approved by President Truman in 1950 that outlined a militaristic approach to combating the spread of global communism.
• Operation Dixie (p. 907)- CIO's largely ineffective post-World War II campaign to unionize southern workers.
• Taft-Hartley Act (p. 908)- 1947 law passed over President Harry Truman's veto; the law contained a number of provisions to weaken labor unions, including the banning of closed shops.
• totalitarianism (p. 904)- The term that describes aggressive, ideologically driven states that seek to subdue all of civil society to their control, thus leaving no room for individual rights or alternative values.
• Truman Doctrine (p. 893)- President Harry S. Truman's program announced in 1947 of aid to European countries-particu-larly Greece and Turkey-threatened by communism.
• "In God We Trust" (p. 940)- on US money since 1954
• baby boom (p. 937)- Markedly higher birthrate in the years following World War II; led to the biggest demographic "bubble" in American history.
• Brown v. Board of Education (p. 958)- 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision that struck down racial segregation in public education and declared "separate but equal" unconstitutional.
• Geneva Accords (p. 951)- A 1954 document that had promised elections to unify Vietnam and established the Seventeenth Parallel demarcation line which divided North and South Vietnam.
• interstate highway system (p. 946)- National network of interstate superhighways; its construction began in the late 1950s for the purpose of commerce and defense. The interstate highways would enable the rapid movement of military convoys and the evacuation of cities after a nuclear attack.
• League of United Latin American Citizens (p. 955)- Often called LULAC, an organization that challenged restrictive housing, employment discrimination, and other inequalities faced by Latino Americans.
• Levittown (p. 932)- Low-cost, mass-produced developments of suburban tract housing built by William Levitt after World War II on Long Island and elsewhere.
• massive retaliation (p. 948)- Strategy that used the threat of nuclear warfare as a means of combating the global spread of communism.
• military-industrial complex (p. 966)- The concept of "an immense military establishment" combined with a "permanent arms industry," which President Eisenhower warned against in his 1961 Farewell Address.
• missile gap (p. 965)- The claim, raised by John F. Kennedy during his campaign for president in 1960, that the Soviet Union had developed a technological and military advantage during Eisenhower's presidency.
• Montgomery bus boycott (p. 960)- Sparked by Rosa Parks's arrest on December 1, 1955, for refusing to surrender her seat to a white passenger, a successful year-long boycott protesting segregation on city buses; led by the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr.
• National Defense Education Act (p. 947)- 1958 law passed in reaction to America's perceived inferiority in the space race; encouraged education in science and modern languages through student loans, university research grants, and aid to public schools.
• social contract (p. 947)- Agreement hammered out between labor and management in leading industries; called a new "social contract." Unions signed long-term agreements that left decisions regarding capital investment, plant location, and output in management's hands, and they agreed to try to prevent unauthorized "wildcat" strikes.
• Southern Christian Leadership Conference (p. 962)- Civil rights organization founded in 1957 by the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights leaders.
• Southern Manifesto (p. 962)- A document written in 1956 that repudiated the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education and supported the campaign against racial integration in public places.
• Sputnik (p. 946)- First artificial satellite to orbit the earth; launched October 4, 1957, by the Soviet Union.
• the Beats (p. 953)- A term coined by Jack Kerouac for a small group of poets and writers who railed against 1950s mainstream culture.
• urban renewal (p. 939)- A series of policies supported by all levels of government that allowed local governments and housing authorities to demolish so-called blighted areas in urban centers to replace them with more valuable real estate usually reserved for white people.
• American Indian movement (p. 1004)- Movement founded in 1963 by Native Americans who were fed up with the poor conditions on Indian reservations and the federal government's unwillingness to help. In 1973, AIM led 200 Sioux in the occupation of Wounded Knee. After a ten-week standoff with the federal authorities, the government agreed to reexamine Indian treaty rights and the occupation ended.
• Bay of Pigs invasion (p. 976)-U.S. mission in which the CIA, hoping to inspire a revolt against Fidel Castro, sent 1,500 Cuban exiles to invade their homeland on April 17, 1961; the mission was a spectacular failure.
• Black Power (p. 987)-Post-1966 rallying cry of a more militant civil rights movement.
• Civil Rights Act (p. 978)-Law that outlawed discrimination in public accommodations and employment.
• counterculture (p. 997)-Hippie" youth culture of the 1960s, which rejected the values of the dominant culture in favor of illicit drugs, communes, free sex, and rock music.
• Cuban missile crisis (p. 976)-Tense confrontation caused when the United States discovered Soviet offensive missile sites in Cuba in October 1962; the U.S.-Soviet confrontation was the Cold War's closest brush with nuclear war.
• Freedom Rides (p. 972)-Bus journeys challenging racial segregation in the South in 1961.
• Great Society (p. 983)-Term coined by President Lyndon B. Johnson in his 1965 State of the Union address, in which he proposed legislation to address problems of voting rights, pov-erty, diseases, education, immigration, and the environment.
• Griswold v. Connecticut (p. 1007)-Supreme Court decision that, in overturning Connecticut law prohibiting the use of contracep-tives, established a constitutional right to privacy.
• Gulf of Tonkin resolution (p. 992)-Legislation passed by Congress in 1964 in reaction to supposedly unprovoked attacks on American warships off the coast of North Vietnam; it gave the president unlimited authority to defend U.S. forces and members of SEATO.
• Hart-Celler Act (p. 982)-1965 law that eliminated the national origins quota system for immigration established by laws in 1921 and 1924; led to radical change in the origins of immigrants to the United States, with Asians and Latin Americans outnumbering Europeans.
• March on Washington (p. 974)-Civil rights demonstration on August 28, 1963, where the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. gave his "I Have a Dream" speech on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial.
• National Organization for Women (p. 1001)- Organization founded in 1966 by writer Betty Friedan and other feminists; it pushed to improve abortion rights, nondiscrimination in the workplace, and other forms of equality for women.
• New Left (p. 988)-Radical youth protest movement of the 1960s, named by leader Tom Hayden to distinguish it from the Old (Marxist-Leninist) Left of the 1930s.
• Port Huron Statement (p. 990)-A manifesto by Students for a Democratic Society that criticized institutions ranging from political parties to corporations, unions, and the military-industrial complex, while offering a new vision of social change.
• Roe v. Wade (p. 1008)-1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision requiring states to permit first-trimester abortions.
• Silent Spring (p. 1005)-1962 book by biologist Rachel Carson about the destructive impact of the widely used insecticide DDT that launched the modern environmentalist movement.
• sit-ins (p. 971)-Tactic adopted by young civil rights activists, beginning in 1960, of demanding service at lunch counters or public accommodations and refusing to leave if denied access; marked the beginning of the most militant phase of the civil rights struggle.
• Stonewall Inn (p. 1003)-A gathering place for New York's gay commu-nity, the site of the 1969 police raids and resulting riots that launched the modern gay rights movement.
• Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (p. 972)-Organization founded in 1960 to coordinate civil rights sit-ins and other forms of grassroots protest.
• Students for a Democratic Society (p. 990)-Major organization of the New Left, founded at the University of Michigan in 1960 by Tom Hayden and Al Haber.
• Tet offensive (p. 1008)-Surprise attack by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese during the Vietnamese New Year of 1968; turned American public opinion strongly against the war in Vietnam.
• The Feminine Mystique (p. 1000)-The book widely credited with sparking second-wave feminism in the United States. Author Betty Friedan focused on college-educated women, arguing that they would find fulfillment by engaging in paid labor outside the home.
• Voting Rights Act (p. 982)-Law passed in the wake of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Selma-to-Montgomery March in 1965; it authorized federal protection of the right to vote and permitted federal enforcement of minority voting rights in individual counties, mostly in the South.
• War on Poverty (p. 984)-Plan announced by President Lyndon B. Johnson in his 1964 State of the Union address; under the Economic Opportunity Bill signed later that year, Head Start, VISTA, and the Jobs Corps were created, and programs were created for students, farmers, and businesses in efforts eliminate poverty.
• affirmative action (p. 1018)- Policy efforts to promote greater employment opportunities for minorities.
• busing (p. 1018)- The means of transporting students via buses to achieve school integration in the 1970s.
• Camp David Accords (p. 1032)- Peace agreement between the leaders of Israel and Egypt, brokered by President Jimmy Carter in 1978.
• deindustrialization (p. 1028)- Term describing decline of manufacturing in old industrial areas in the late twentieth century as companies shifted production to low-wage centers in the South and West or in other countries.
• deregulation (p. 1030)- Reagan-Clinton era legislation that removed regulations on many industries, including finance and air travel.
• détente (p. 1022)- Period of improving relations between the United States and Communist nations, particularly China and the Soviet Union, during the Nixon administration.
• Helsinki Accords (p. 1029)- 1975 agreement between the USSR and the United States that recognized the post-World War II boundaries of Europe and guaranteed the basic liberties of each nation's citizens.
• Iran-Contra affair (p. 1047)- Scandal of the second Reagan administration involving sales of arms to Iran in partial exchange for release of hostages in Lebanon and use of the arms money to aid the Contras in Nicaragua, which had been expressly forbidden by Congress.
• My Lai massacre (p. 1022)- Massacre of 347 Vietnamese civilians in the village of My Lai by Lieutenant William Calley and troops under his command. U.S. army officers covered up the massacre for a year until an investigation uncovered the events. Eventually twenty-five army officers were charged with complicity in the massacre and its cover-up, but only Calley was convicted. He served little time for his crimes.
• neoconservatives (p. 1034)- The leaders of the conservative insurgency of the early 1980s. Their brand of conservatism was personified in Ronald Reagan, who believed in less government, supply-side economics, and "family values."
• oil embargo (p. 1027)- Prohibition on trade in oil declared by the One-nization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, dominated by Middle Eastern producers, in October 1973 in response to U.S. and western European support for Israel in the 1973 om Kippur War. The rise in gas prices and fuel shortages resulted in a global economic recession and profoundly affected the American economy.
• Pentagon Papers (p. 1023)- Informal name for the Defense Department's secret history of the Vietnam conflict; leaked to the press by former official Daniel Ellsberg and published in the New York Times in 1971.
• Reagan Revolution (p. 1039)- The rightward turn of American polita following the 1980 election of Ronald Reagan. The Reagan Revolution made individual freedom" a allying the right.
• Reaganomics (p. 1044)- Popular name for President Ronald Reagan’s philosophy of "supply side" economics, which combined tax supported cuts with an unregulated marketplace.
• reverse discrimination (p. 1019)- Belief that affirmative action programs discriminate against white people.
• stagflation (p. 1027)- A combination of stagnant economic growth and high inflation present during the 1970s.
• Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (p. 1021)-1972 talks between President Nixon and Secretary Brezhnev that resulted in the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (or SALT), which limited the quantity of nuclear warheads each nation could possess, and prohibited the development of missile defense systems.
• Sunbelt (p. 1028)-The label for an arc that stretched from the Carolinas to California. During the postwar era, much of the urban population growth occurred in this area.
• Three Mile Island (p. 1030)-Nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, site of 1979 accident that released radioactive steam into the air; public reaction ended the nuclear power industry's expansion.
• Title IX (p. 1020)-Part of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972 that banned gender discrimination in higher education.
• Vietnam Syndrome (p. 1024)-The belief that the United States should be extremely cautious in deploying its military forces overseas that emerged after the end of the Vietnam War.
• War Powers Act (p. 1023)-Law passed in 1973, reflecting growing opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War; required congressional approval before the president sent troops abroad.
• Watergate (p. 1024)-Washington office and apartment complex that lent its name to the 1972-1974 scandal of the Nixon adminis-tration; when his knowledge of the break-in at the Watergate and subsequent cover-up were revealed, Nixon resigned the presidency under threat of impeachment.
• "Don't ask, don't tell" (p. 1056)- President Clinton's compromise measure that allowed gay people to serve in the military incog-nito, as officers could no longer seek them out for dismissal but they could not openly express their identity. "Don't ask, don't tell" was ended under the Obama administration, when gay military service was allowed.
• Americans with Disabilities Act (p. 1078)-1990 law that prohibited the discrimination against persons with disabilities in both hiring and promotion. It also mandated accessible entrances for public buildings.
• Balkan crisis (p. 1059)- A series of ethnic and political crises that arose following the dissolution of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Many atrocities were committed during the conflict, and NATO, the United Nations, and the United States intervened several times.
• Bush v. Gore (p. 1084)- U.S. Supreme Court case that determined the winner of the disputed 2000 presidential election.
• Contract with America (p. 1057)- A list of conservatives' promises in response to the supposed liberalism of the Clinton admin-istration, that was drafted by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich and other congressional Republicans as the GOP platform for the 1994 midterm elections. It was more a campaign tactic than a practical program; few of its proposed items ever became law.
• Culture Wars (p. 1080)- Battles over moral values that occurred throughout the 1990s. The Culture Wars touched many areas of American life-from popular culture to academia. Flashpoints included the future of the nuclear family and the teaching of evolution.
• Defense of Marriage Act (p. 1081)- 1996 law that barred gay couples from receiving federal benefits. Ruled unconstitutional in 2013.
• ethnic cleansing (p. 1059)- The systematic removal of an ethnic group from a territory through violence or intimidation in order to create a homogeneous society; the term was popularized by the Yugoslav policy brutally targeting Albanian Muslims in Kosovo.
• family values (p. 1081)-Set of beliefs usually associated with conservatism that stressed the superiority of nuclear family, heterosexual marriage, and traditional gender roles.
• globalization (p. 1061)-Term that became prominent in the 1990s to describe the rapid acceleration of international flows of com-merce, financial resources, labor, and cultural products.
• Gulf War (p. 1054)-Legislation passed by Congress in 1964 in reaction to supposedly unprovoked attacks on American warships off the coast of North Vietnam; it gave the president unlimited authority to defend U.S. forces and members of SEATO.
• multiculturalism (p. 1079)-Term that became prominent in the 1990s to describe a growing emphasis on group racial and ethnic identity and demands that jobs, education, and politics reflect the increasingly diverse nature of American society.
• new world order (p. 1053)-President George H. W. Bush's term for the post-Cold War world.
• North American Free Trade Agreement (p. 1057)-Approved in 1993, the agreement with Canada and Mexico that allowed goods to travel across their borders free of tariffs. Critics of the agreement argued that American workers would lose their jobs to cheaper Mexican labor.
• Oslo Accords (p. 1059)-1993 roadmap for peace between Israel and the newly created Palestinian Authority, negotiated under the Clinton administration.
• Rwandan genocide (p. 1059)-1994 Genocide conducted by the Hutu ethnic group upon the Tutsi minority in Rwanda.
• American exceptionalism (p. 1129)- The belief that the United States has a special mission to serve as a refuge from tyranny, a symbol of freedom, and a model for the rest of the world.
• Black Lives Matter (p. 1121)- Civil rights movement sparked by a series of incidents of police brutality and lethal force against people of color.
• Bush Doctrine (p. 1093)- President George W. Bush's foreign policy principle wherein the United States would launch a war or terrorism.
• Edward Snowden (p. 1125)- An NSA contractor turned whistleblower, who released classified information relating to the United States' intelligence gathering both at home and abroad.
• Great Recession (p. 1111)- A period of major economic stagnation across the United States and western Europe, characterized by rising unemployment and inflation and a 37 percent decline in the stock market between March and December 1974.
• Guantánamo Bay (p. 1097)-A detention center at the American naval base at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, where beginning in 2002 suspected terrorists and war prisoners were held indefinitely and tried by extrajudicial military tribunals. During his 2008 presidential campaign, Senator Barack Obama pledged to close the prison, but as of 2015 it remained open.
• Gulf oil spill (p. 1116)- Environmental disaster that occurred in 2010 after an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig. Hundreds of millions of gallons of oil were spilled into the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in one of the largest environmental calamities in human history.
• Hurricane Katrina (p. 1102)-2005 hurricane that devastated much of the Gulf Coast, especially New Orleans. The Bush administration's response was widely criticized as inadequate.
• Iraq War (p. 1095)-Military campaign in 2003 in which the United States, unable to gain approval by the United Nations, unilaterally occupied Iraq and removed dictator Saddam Hussein from power.
• ISIS (p. 1124)-An insurgency that emerged from the sectarian civil wars that destabilized Syria and post-Saddam Hussein Iraq. Beginning in 2014, ISIS forces attacked towns and cities in Iraq, Syria, and Libya, systematically murdering members of ethnic and religious minorities.
• Kyoto Protocol (p. 1092)-A 1997 international agreement that sought to combat global warming. To great controversy, the Bush administration announced in 2001 that it would not abide by the Kyoto Protocol.
• Obergefell v. Hodges (p. 1106)-2015 Supreme Court decision that allowed same-sex couples to marry throughout the United States.
• Occupy Wall Street (p. 1119)-A grassroots movement in 2011 against growing economic inequality, declining opportunity, and the depredations of Wall Street banks.
• Sonia Sotomayor (p. 1116)-First Supreme Court Justice of Hispanic descent. Justice Sotomayor was appointed by President Barack Obama in 2009.
• Tea Party (p. 1125)-A grassroots Republican movement that emerged in 2009 named for the Boston Tea Party of the 1770s. The Tea Party opposed the Obama administration's sweeping legislative enactments and advocated for a more stringent immigration policy.
• USA Patriot Act (p. 1097-A 2001 mammoth bill that conferred unprecedented powers on law-enforcement agencies charged with preventing domestic terrorism, including the power to wire-tap, read private messages, and spy on citizens.
• war in Afghanistan (p. 1093)-War fought against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan following the attacks of September 11, 2001. It remains the longest war in American history.
• war on terrorism (p. 1093)-Global crusade to root out anti-American, anti-Western Islamist terrorist cells; launched by President George W. Bush as a response to the 9/11 attacks.