Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.

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Pre-AP_Biology_2025_Midterm_Exam_Review

Unit 1: Ecological Systems

1.1 Cycling of Matter in the Biosphere

Ecology Basics:

Definition of Ecology: The scientific study of interactions and relationships among living organisms, including their relationships with their physical environment and each other. Understanding these interactions is crucial for comprehending ecosystem health and sustainability.
Ecosystem Defined: An ecosystem is composed of a community of living organisms (biotic components) interacting with their physical environment (abiotic components). These interactions encompass energy flow and nutrient cycling, which are vital for maintaining ecosystem processes.

Branches of Ecology:

Organismal Ecology: Focuses on individual organisms and their adaptations to their environment, studying how they survive, grow, reproduce, and behave.
Population Ecology: Investigates how populations of species grow and interact, focusing on metrics like size, density, distribution, and genetic diversity.
Community Ecology: Examines the interactions between different species within a community, including predation, competition, and symbiosis, which shape community structure and dynamics.
Ecosystem Ecology: Studies energy flow and the cycling of nutrients among organisms and their environment, emphasizing ecosystem productivity and metabolic processes.

Biotic vs Abiotic Factors:

Biotic Factors: The living components of an ecosystem, including plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and interactions such as predation, competition, and parasitism.
Abiotic Factors: The non-living elements that influence ecosystems, such as sunlight, temperature, water, minerals, and atmospheric gases, which all contribute to shaping ecological niches and conditions for life.

Matter and Energy Flow:

Matter Cycles: Essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are recycled within ecosystems through biogeochemical cycles, affecting productivity and biological diversity.
Energy Flow: Energy enters ecosystems through photosynthesis and flows through trophic levels, from producers to consumers, losing energy at each transformation, highlighting the inefficiencies of energy transfer.

Four Spheres of Earth:

Geosphere: The solid part of Earth, including the crust, mantle, and core, influencing landforms and habitats.
Atmosphere: The layer of gases surrounding the planet, crucial for weather, climate, and oxygen availability for respiration.
Hydrosphere: All water components, including oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater, integral for life and climate regulation.
Biosphere: The realm of life encompassing all ecosystems, where biotic and abiotic factors interact to sustain living organisms.

1.2 Population Dynamics

Population Definition:

A population is defined as a group of individuals of the same species residing in a specific geographic area, sharing the same resource requirements, and capable of interbreeding.

Studying Populations:

Geographic Range: The spatial area where a population is found, which can vary in size and shape, often correlated with environmental features and species adaptability.
Growth Rate: Describes changes in population size over time, influenced by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration factors.
Density: Refers to the number of individuals per unit area; high density can lead to competition for resources, while low density may hinder mating opportunities.

Distribution Patterns:

Distribution Patterns: Refers to how individuals are spatially arranged in an area. Patterns can be:
- Uniform: Individuals spaced evenly, often due to territorial behavior.
- Clumped: Individuals grouped in patches, often around resources such as water.
- Random: Individuals are distributed unpredictably, reflecting a lack of strong interactions among individuals.

Growth Models:

Exponential Growth: Characterizes populations under ideal conditions with abundant resources, leading to rapid increases over time; common in pioneer species like bacteria and pests.
Logistic Growth: Occurs when populations grow until resources become limited, leading to a leveling off as the population reaches carrying capacity; typical of larger, long-lived species such as elephants.

Species Types:

r-selected Species: These species produce large numbers of offspring, usually have a short lifespan, and survive in unstable environments (e.g., mice, insects).
K-selected Species: Characterized by lower reproductive rates, longer lifespans, and higher parental care, thriving in stable environments (e.g., elephants, humans).

1.3 Defining Ecological Communities

Biodiversity Defined:

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms in a specific habitat or ecosystem, encompassing the diversity of species, genetic variation, and ecosystem variety.

Levels of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity: Variation within a species' gene pool, critical for adaptation and resilience.
Species Diversity: The number of different species in an area, reflecting ecosystem health.
Ecosystem Diversity: The variety of ecosystems within a specific area, influencing functionality and stability.

Importance of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity is essential for ecosystem services such as pollination, nutrient cycling, water purification, and contributes to human welfare through food security and medicinal resources.

Threats to Biodiversity:

HIPPO Framework: Highlights major threats:
- Habitat Destruction: Urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation leading to loss of biodiversity.
- Invasive Species: Non-native species that disrupt local ecosystems, outcompeting indigenous species.
- Pollution: Contaminants affecting ecosystems and species health.
- Population : Human population growth increasing resource demands.
- Overharvesting: Unsustainable harvesting practices harming species survival.

Biome Definition:

Biome: Ecological communities characterized by specific climate, flora, and fauna, shaping ecosystems across the globe.

Types of Biomes:

Aquatic and Terrestrial Biomes: Each with unique features and species adaptations, exhibiting diverse ecosystem dynamics.
- Terrestrial Biomes: Include distinct ecosystems such as:
  - Tropical Rainforest: High biodiversity and primary productivity, warm and moist.
  - Savanna: Grasslands with scattered trees, characterized by seasonal rainfall.
  - Desert: Minimal precipitation, extreme temperature ranges, and specialized flora/fauna.
- Aquatic Biomes: Presence of freshwater and saltwater environments; key examples include:
  - Lakes and Ponds: Freshwater bodies with distinct zones (littoral, limnetic).
  - Oceans: Largest biome, influencing global climate and having varied ecosystems (coral reefs, deep-sea).

1.4 Ecological Community Dynamics

Community Definition:

An ecological community is a group of interacting species using the same resources and sharing a habitat, forming a dynamic system.

Habitat Defined:

Habitat: The specific environment in which an organism lives, including both biotic and abiotic factors that influence survival.

Ecological Niches:

Ecological Niches: The role or function of a species within an ecosystem, including its habitat, resource use, and interactions with other organisms.
- Fundamental Niche: The potential range of conditions and resources a species could theoretically occupy and use.
- Realized Niche: The actual conditions and resources used by a species, often limited by competition, predation, and resource availability.

Range of Tolerance:

Range of Tolerance: Describes the range of environmental conditions in which a species can survive.
- Optimum Range: Where the species thrives; extremes can lead to stress, decreased fitness, or mortality.

Keystone Species:

Keystone Species: A species whose impact on its ecosystem is disproportionately large relative to its abundance, playing a crucial role in maintaining the structure and stability of the community; their removal can lead to significant ecological shifts.

Symbiotic Relationships:

Various interactions among species in a community:
1. Predation: One species (predator) feeds on another (prey), shaping population dynamics.
2. Competition: Species vie for the same resources, influencing community structure and species distribution.
3. Mutualism: An interaction benefitting both species (e.g., pollination).
4. Commensalism: One species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
5. Parasitism: One species benefits at the expense of the other (host), impacting host population dynamics.

1.5 Changes in Ecological Communities

Ecological Succession:

Ecological Succession: The observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time, often following a disturbance.
- Primary Succession: Begins in lifeless areas where soil has yet to form (e.g., after a volcanic eruption or glacial retreat), leading to colonization by pioneer species like lichens and mosses.
- Secondary Succession: Occurs in previously populated areas following a disturbance (e.g., fire, flood) that does not eliminate all life, allowing for faster recovery.

Pioneer Species:

Pioneer Species: The first colonizers of disturbed areas, these organisms are crucial for soil formation and creating conditions suitable for subsequent species.

Mass Extinctions:

Mass Extinctions: Events that eradicate a large proportion of species, significantly altering ecosystems and opening ecological niches for new species.

Ecosystem Engineers:

Ecosystem Engineers: Species that significantly modify their habitat, creating or maintaining ecosystems (e.g., beavers constructing dams), which enhances biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

Unit 2: Evolution

2.1 Patterns of Evolution

Definition of Evolution:

Evolution: The change in heritable traits within a population over generations, driven by factors like natural selection, genetic drift, mutations, and gene flow.

Key Evolutionary Scientists:

Lamarck: Proposed an early theory of evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics; many of his ideas were later disproved.
Darwin: Best known for the theory of natural selection, emphasizing adaptation and survival of the fittest as mechanisms driving evolution.

Fossils:

Fossils provide crucial evidence for evolutionary processes, illustrating transitional forms and the history of life on Earth, allowing scientists to trace species' lineage.

Common Ancestors:

The concept of common ancestry forms the basis of evolutionary theory, whereby diverse species have evolved from shared ancestors over time.

Homology:

Homology: Refers to the structural similarities found between different species stemming from common ancestry (e.g., vertebrate limb structures).
- Contrasted with Analogy, where similarities arise from convergent evolution due to similar environmental pressures rather than shared ancestry.

Evidence Types:

Various lines of evidence support evolutionary mechanisms, including:
- Biogeography: Geographic distribution of species supports theories about isolation and adaptation.
- DNA Analysis: Provides insights into genetic relationships and evolutionary processes at the molecular level.
- Comparative Embryology: Comparative studies of embryonic development in different species reveal similarities indicative of common ancestry.

2.2 Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural Selection:

Natural Selection: The process wherein organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce, leading to the gradual evolution of species according to fitness.

Conditions for Natural Selection:

Overproduction: Species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly survive, leading to competition.
Heritable Variations: Individuals show variations that can be passed to offspring; these variations can affect fitness.
Variable Fitness: Certain traits give some individuals an advantage in survival and reproduction under specific environmental conditions.

Types of Selection on Polygenic Traits:

Directional Selection: Favors one extreme phenotype, shifting the population mean in that direction.
Stabilizing Selection: Favors intermediate phenotypes, reducing variation and maintaining the status quo.
Disruptive Selection: Favors extreme phenotypes over intermediate, potentially leading to speciation.

Genetic Drift:

Genetic Drift: Random changes in allele frequencies in a population, with significant effects in small populations.
- Bottleneck Effect: Loss of genetic diversity due to a drastic reduction in population size.
- Founder Effect: Reduced genetic diversity that occurs when a small group separates from a larger population to establish a new population.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

A principle that provides a framework for understanding genetic variation and equilibrium within populations; under certain conditions, allele frequencies remain constant from one generation to the next, indicating no evolution.
- Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg: No mutations, random mating, no natural selection, large population size, and no gene flow.
- Application: Researchers can apply Hardy-Weinberg to calculate expected genotype frequencies in populations and assess evolutionary forces at work.

2.3 Speciation

Rates of Evolution:

Gradualism: A model of evolution where changes occur slowly and steadily over long periods.
Punctuated Equilibrium: Theory that evolution is characterized by long periods of stability interrupted by brief and rapid changes.

Extinction Events:

Significant extinction events can reshape evolutionary pathways, eradicating dominant groups and allowing for the emergence of new species in previously occupied niches.

Speciation Processes:

Prezygotic Barriers: Mechanisms that prevent mating or fertilization between species, including temporal (timing), behavioral (courtship behaviors), and mechanical (incompatibility of reproductive organs) barriers.
Postzygotic Barriers: Occurs after fertilization, impacting the viability or fertility of the offspring, for instance, reduced hybrid viability or sterility.

Definitions of Species:

Allopatric Speciation: Occurs when populations are geographically isolated, leading to divergence through evolutionary processes.
Sympatric Speciation: Occurs without geographical separation, often through mechanisms like polyploidy in plants or behavioral isolation in animals, resulting in the emergence of new species within the same area.

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