Comprehensive Study Notes: The Thirteen Colonies (APUSH - Region, Governance, Society, and Economy)
Sectionalism and Regions: New England, Middle, Southern (including Chesapeake).
Different settlement motivations:
New England: largely religious motives (Purtian/Separatist influence).
Southern: largely economic motives (plantation/intensive cash crops).
Middle: mixed motives and diverse settlements; notable later states pictured that didn’t exist yet (e.g., Vermont 1777/1791, Maine 1820).
Visual cue: maps often group colonies into New England, Middle, Chesapeake, and Lower South.
Types of Colonies (Page 4): governance models under the Crown
Crown (Royal) colonies: governed directly by a royally-appointed governor.
Joint-Stock (Corporate/Charter): charter granted to a corporation; profit-driven; none left at the American Revolution.
Proprietary: a proprietor-owned colony with authority to plan government; often granted by the monarch; progressively more independent.
Background and Early Foundations (Pages 5–6)
1565: Spanish established the first permanent settlement in present-day U.S. (St. Augustine, FL).
Spanish lead in western hemispheric colonization; English colonization in NA becomes a long-term project.
Roanoke (1587–1590): the Lost Colony; Sir Walter Raleigh’s royal grant suggested private investment alone was insufficient.
By the colonial era, the English empire slogan hinted at global reach: “The sun never sets on the British Empire.”
Colonial map cache: major colonial centers and fort sites anchored by date of settlement and key fortifications.
Virginia Company and Jamestown (Pages 7–12)
Founded 1606 as a Joint-Stock Company to establish profitable North American settlements; Jamestown (1607) was the first permanent English settlement in NA with 105 original settlers.
Early struggles in Jamestown: initial starvation, lack of farming discipline, leadership failures, and dependency on Powhatan food/supplies; by Jan 1608 only 38 remained from 105.
1608 reforms under John Smith: organized work gangs, sanitation rules, and military discipline; famous rule: “He that will not work shall not eat.”
Starving Time (1609–1610): drought, Powhatan siege, and disease led to >400/500 deaths during winter; relief arrived in 1610 with provisions.
John Rolfe and Pocahontas (1614): marriage brought temporary peace; Rolfe introduced a sweeter tobacco strain (the so-called “Brown Gold”) which became Virginia’s cash crop and a driver of profitability for the colony.
Tobacco as cash crop: crucial to Virginia and Chesapeake/NC economies; tobacco cultivation required large labor forces and space.
Labor system evolution (Pages 12–13):
Indentured Servants: Europeans who agreed to a fixed term (~7 years) of labor in exchange for passage; upon freedom, received property and sometimes voting rights; each person generated a headright (50 acres) for the sponsor.
Indentured servitude expanded plantations in the South but created social inequality and conflicts as freed servants sought land (eventually leading to Bacon’s Rebellion).
African slaves: first arrived in 1619; by 1670 slavery had become a dominant labor system due to profitability and renewability of slave labor.
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676): Nathaniel Bacon mobilized disenfranchised settlers against Native tribes and attacked Jamestown; rebellion collapsed when Bacon died of dysentery.
Aftermath and social codes: alliance between disenfranchised free Blacks and poor whites led to Black Codes, designed to restrict rights of free and enslaved Africans and their descendants; by 1680, laws restricted firearms, large gatherings, and later expanded to restrict marriage, education, and self-defense.
Powhatan relations and 1622 Indian Massacre: after tobacco expansion, Powhatan Confederacy attacked English settlements; 347 English settlers killed, about 25% of the colonial population; the engraving/POV on the image questions who created it.
1619 milestone: Virginia House of Burgesses established (elected legislative body); property-holding white men could vote for representatives.
1624: VA Company charter revoked; Virginia became a Royal Colony with a royal governor, aligning governance with Crown policy.
Comparison with Spanish colonization (Page 19): Spanish sought wealth via mining and large labor forces, converting natives to Catholicism; English sought settlements aimed at expansion and resource extraction with natives as obstacles rather than labor pools.
Southern Colonies Overview (Pages 21–22)
Colonies: Virginia, Maryland, Carolinas, Georgia.
Economic pull: primarily economic gain; cash crops like tobacco, indigo, and rice developed later in South Carolina and Georgia.
Religion: Mostly Anglican; MD stands out as a Catholic haven in its early history.
Society: Large disparity in wealth; landowning aristocracy (a small elite) vs. rest of population; governance included House of Burgesses and Royal Governor after 1624.
Political/economic structure: early reliance on indentured servitude transitioning to slave labor; cash crops required large tracts of land and labor.
New England Beginnings and Religion (Pages 22–36)
Religious background: religious uniformity under Anglican rule in England; many Puritans and Separatists fled to New England seeking religious reform and purity.
Plymouth (1620): Mayflower voyage carried 102 passengers; not all had legal right to settle; Mayflower Compact established a foundation for majority rule and self-governance under local authority (William Bradford led Plymouth).
Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony were early centers; 1621 Thanksgiving commemorates cooperation with Native peoples (Squantos aid).
Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630): Great Migration (pt. 1) brought roughly 15,000 settlers to Mass Bay in the 1630s, many as families; robust town-based political structures supported farming and commerce.
Winthrop’s City Upon a Hill: John Winthrop’s vision of a religious commonwealth where the community’s moral conduct reflects on the colony and God’s favor; community > individual.
The “New England Way”: church and state closely linked; broader political participation than Virginia due to town meetings; education emphasis to read the Bible; Puritan Congregationalism as a distinct church form.
Dissent and religious liberty in New England:
Roger Williams (Separatist minister): advocated complete separation of church and state and religious toleration; banished and founded Providence (1636) which later became part of Rhode Island; Rhode Island became the only New England colony to allow religious toleration.
Anne Hutchinson: challenged male authority, led home Bible studies; claimed she could see the elect; banished and founded Portsmouth (1638).
Rhode Island’s religious landscape: Providence and Portsmouth united as Rhode Island (1644); established full religious toleration for various groups including Catholics, Quakers, and Jews.
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations: the haven for dissenters; later expansions into Aquidneck Island and Newport (various towns shown on the map).
New England religious dissent and population management: Half-Wull Covenant (1662): allow baptism of children of baptized adults without conversion for church membership; still limited voting/communion rights; later fully integrated to maintain population and power.
Salem Witch Trials (1692): more than 130 accused; 103 tried in the first 70 years; anomalies of Puritan fear during royal transition in MA (royal colony) and regional anxieties with Native wars; link to weakness of Puritan unity under changing governance.
Native relations in New England: Pequot War (1636–1638) crushed CT Valley tribe; New England Confederation formed in 1640s (Plymouth, MA Bay, CT, New Haven) and Praying Towns established to convert/culturally assimilate Native populations.
King Philip’s War (Metacom’s War, 1675–1678): alliance of tribes led by Metacomet of the Wampanoag rose against English settlers; initially successful but ultimately crushed; heavy Native casualties and dispossession; marked the end of major Native resistance in New England.
Maryland, Restoration Colonies, and Carolina (Pages 46–50)
Maryland (1632): established as a proprietary colony by Lord Baltimore (Catholic noble); Act of Toleration (1649) granted religious freedom to all Trinitarian Christians; Protestant Revolt (1689–1692) led to repeal of the Act of Toleration and greater Protestant dominance; Maryland’s economy and society developed similar to VA but with more religious diversity than VA.
Name origin: Maryland named for Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I.
Colonies founded during Restoration (1660–1685): Carolinas, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania; many started as proprietary colonies.
Carolina Colony (1663): Charles II granted land to eight noble Proprietors; goals included empire expansion, defense against French/Spanish, economic gain; 1770 establishment of Charles Town; modelled after Barbados with plantation economy and slavery.
Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669): original proposal included a social hierarchy with limited democracy; impractical; later versions granted more power to common settlers and included religious freedom; 1685 Huguenots (French Protestants) arrived; resulting in a diverse population.
Two Colonies (1712): split due to geographic and economic differences; North Carolina retained smaller farms and more subsistence agriculture; South Carolina relied on plantation economy with slave labor; main cash crop: rice (and also indigo later).
Critical thinking prompt: Social structure in VA vs. Carolina reveals the breakdown of manorial systems; Bacon’s Rebellion shows conflict around land and political power; compare NE and Southern structures; explore why differences existed.
Middle Colonies (Pages 52–66)
Origins: English focus shifted to Middle Colonies after initial emphasis on New England and the South; New Netherland (Dutch) and Swedes established presence before English conquest in 1664.
Population snapshot (1660): New Netherland ~ 5000, New France ~ 3000, Chesapeake ~ 25000, New England ~ 33000.
Reasons for settlement: religious toleration and economic opportunity; Dutch and Swedes contributed to diversity and pluralism.
Colonies: New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania; seized from the Dutch in 1664; majority settlers remained post-seizure; diverse religious and ethnic groups included Dutch, English, French Huguenots, Jews, Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans, enslaved Africans.
Society and politics: mixed class structure; less aristocratic than South; institutions tended toward representative government but with social stratification; religious tolerance fostered gradual pluralism.
Economy: staple crops (wheat, corn); family farms; timber and shipbuilding; fur trade; urban centers developed with thriving trade networks.
Native relations: allied with the Iroquois but conflicted with other tribes and the French over land and trade (Beaver Wars 1628–1701); Great Peace of Montreal (1701) temporarily eased tensions with the Iroquois.
Pennsylvania (1681): founded by William Penn as a Quaker haven; goals included religious freedom and commercial opportunity; Penn’s “Woods” concept and policy of land grants fostered a large, diverse population; 1682 population around 18,000 by 1700; mid-colonies featured genuine religious tolerance and ethnic pluralism; Philadelphia (City of Brotherly Love) became a major port on the Delaware River.
Quakers (Religious Society of Friends): core beliefs include the Inner Light guiding every person, no priesthood, direct individual relationship with God; values include pacifism, equality, and conscience freedom; Quaker meetings feature a leadership model without hierarchical clergy.
Quaker beliefs vs. Anglicans: Quaker meetings emphasize the Priesthood of All Believers; social activism vs. formal liturgy; image of equality and informal language (thee/thou), which could be offensive to others but symbolized egalitarianism.
Relations with Natives in PA: Penn’s Quaker policy prioritized peaceful relations and friendship with Native peoples; “Great Treaty” with Nat Ams and coexistence with Dutch and Swedes in the region.
PA economy: staple crops like wheat, corn, oats; Philadelphia emerged as a trading hub; exports included crops, timber, and furs; slavery existed but PA would later lead in abolition movements (Gradual Abolition Act of 1780).
Economic Overview and Mercantilism (Pages 73–75)
Economic overview by region:
New England: focus on trade, shipbuilding, and fishing.
Middle: staple crops (wheat, corn), family farms, trade; broader mixture of economic activities.
Southern (Chesapeake): cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo in some regions); heavy reliance on enslaved labor; grain also produced.
Mercantilism: regulation of trade to enhance the power of the mother country; colonies serve as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.
Navigation Acts (1651): mandated that colonies trade only with Great Britain or other British colonies; aimed to ensure a favorable balance of trade for Britain; reduced colonial pricing autonomy and increased dependence on Britain.
Salutary neglect: a period during which enforcement of mercantilist restrictions was lax; colonists enjoyed broad autonomy and engaged in smuggling; helped lay groundwork for later revolutionary sentiments.
Central motifs: economic development tied to imperial policy; regional differences reflect varying degrees of legal autonomy, labor systems, and community structures.
Key Dates and Numbers (selected)
1565: First permanent European settlement in present-day U.S. (St. Augustine, FL).
1587–1590: Roanoke Lost Colony.
1606: Virginia Company founded.
1607: Jamestown established; 105 original settlers; early mortality high.
1608: John Smith’s reforms; 38 of 105 remained after the initial winter.
1609–1610: Starving Time; >400 of 500 died.
1612–1613: Tobacco cultivation expands; Rolfe’s strain gains popularity.
1614: Pocahontas marriage; peace is fostered.
1619: First Africans arrive; Virginia House of Burgesses established; first “headrights” system later; population growth accelerates.
1622: Indian Massacre; about 347 English settlers killed (about 25% of the English population in VA).
1624: VA charter revoked; Virginia becomes Royal Colony.
1630s: Great Migration to Massachusetts Bay; ~\text{15,000} settlers.
1636–1665: Rhode Island founded by dissenters (Williams and Hutchinson influence).
1649: Act of Toleration in Maryland.
1663: Carolina grant; 8 Proprietors given control.
1664: New York and New Jersey seized from the Dutch; DE and PA later solidified.
1681–1682: Pennsylvania founded; 18,000 inhabitants by 1700.
1689–1692: Protestant Revolution in Maryland; shifts political power toward Protestants.
1701: Great Peace of Montreal.
1732: Georgia founded as a buffer colony and debtor relief; indigo and rice as later crops.
1700: Population of New England ≈ 33{,}000; Chesapeake ≈ 25{,}000; New Netherland ≈ 5{,}000; New France ≈ 3{,}000.
1750: Colonial population ≈ 1{,}250{,}000; >90% in rural areas; enslaved population ≈ 200{,}000 by 1750.
Connections and Implications
Religion and governance intertwine in New England (town meetings, Congregational church influence on public life) but diverge in Middle and Southern colonies where representative assemblies and proprietary governance vary.
Slavery expands from early presence (1619) to a dominant labor system by the late 17th century, shaping social hierarchy and economic structure, especially in the South.
Native relations swing from cooperation and trade to conflict as settlements expand; major conflicts include Pequot War and King Philip’s War in New England, and Beaver Wars in the Middle Colonies.
The Navigation Acts and mercantilist framework shape colonial economies and political tensions with Britain, with the later era of Salutary Neglect contributing to revolutionary sentiment.
The diversity of the Middle Colonies (ethnic, religious, and linguistic) fosters a comparatively pluralistic society; Pennsylvania’s policy of religious toleration contrasts with more homogenous New England.
Quick Connections to Foundational Principles
Puritan and Separatist religious ideals influenced social organization, education, and governance in New England.
Concept of “city upon a hill” (Winthrop) reflects a religiously driven civic ideal influencing colonial self-perception and leadership.
Economic systems in the colonies illustrate early capitalism, labor systems, and the regional specialization that would define early American economy.
Examples and Metaphors from the Text
Mayflower Compact as an early covenant-based approach to self-government and majority rule.
“Brown Gold” tobacco as a powerful economic metaphor for the Virginia tobacco economy and its labor demands.
The “half-way covenant” as a pragmatic compromise to sustain church membership in a growing population.
The City Upon a Hill as a metaphor for American exceptionalism tied to Puritan communal ideals.
Formulas, Equations, and Quantitative References (LaTeX)
Population and labor references:
33{,}000 (New England population in 1660) vs. 25{,}000 (Chesapeake) vs. 5{,}000 (New Netherland) vs. 3{,}000 (New France).
By 1700: total colonial population ≈ 250{,}000 -> 1{,}250{,}000 by 1750.
Enslaved population in 1750 ≈ 200{,}000.
Land and grants:
Headright grants: 50 acres per person.
Time ranges to anchor events:
King Philip’s War: 1675{–}1678.
Beaver Wars: 1628{–}1701.
Great Migration: 1630s (Massachusetts Bay).
Connections to Real-World Relevance and Ethics
The evolution of labor systems (indentured servitude to slavery) raises enduring ethical questions about labor, rights, and race in American history.
The concept of religious liberty evolves from exclusionary practices (Salem trials, half-way covenant) to broader religious tolerance (Rhode Island, Pennsylvania); this trajectory informs contemporary debates about church-state relations and pluralism.
The mercantilist framework and later laissez-faire shifts foreshadow tensions between autonomy and imperial control that culminated in the American Revolution.
The varied colonial experiences illustrate how geography, religion, economy, and Native relations shape divergent paths to American identity.
Summary Takeaways:
- The colonies were not monolithic; they developed distinct regional systems shaped by religion, economics, and governance.
- The transition from indentured servitude to slave labor transformed social, political, and economic structures, especially in the South.
- Religious ideals profoundly influenced political structures in New England, while economic motives dominated in the South and diverse Middle colonies created different social dynamics.
- Mercantilism and British policy created a framework in which colonial economies were integrated into a broader imperial system, setting the stage for future conflict and cooperation with Britain.