What does the prefix 'angio-' refer to?; Vessel
What is angiotensin?; A substance that constricts blood vessels.
What does the prefix 'ather-' mean?; Porridge
What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of plaque in arteries.
What does the prefix 'brady-' mean?; Slow
What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat.
What does the prefix 'diastol-' mean?; Dilation
What is diastolic pressure?; Blood pressure when the ventricle of the heart is relaxed.
What does the prefix 'edem-' mean?; Swelling
What is edema?; Accumulation of fluids in the tissues that causes them to swell.
What does the suffix '-gram' mean?; Something written
What is an electrocardiogram?; Recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle.
What does the prefix 'lun-' mean?; Moon
What is a semilunar valve?; A valve with crescent-shaped flaps.
What does the prefix 'myo-' mean?; Muscle
What is the myocardium?; Muscle tissue within the wall of the heart.
What does the prefix 'papill-' mean?; Nipple
What is a papillary muscle?; A small mound of muscle projecting into a ventricle of the heart.
What does the prefix 'phleb-' mean?; Vein
What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein.
What does the prefix 'scler-' mean?; Hard
What is arteriosclerosis?; Loss of elasticity and hardening of a blood vessel wall.
What does the prefix 'syn-' mean?; Together
What is a syncytium?; A mass of merging cells that act together.
What does the prefix 'systol-' mean?; Contraction
What is systolic pressure?; Blood pressure resulting from a single ventricular contraction.
What does the prefix 'tachy-' mean?; Rapid
What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat.
How many liters of blood does the heart pump through the body each day?; 7,000 liters.
How many times does the heart contract in an average lifetime?; 2.5 billion times.
In what order does the heart pump blood through the blood vessels?; Arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart.
What components make up the cardiovascular system?; The heart and all blood vessels.
What does the term 'cardiovascular' refer to?; Both heart and blood vessels.
What is the function of the heart's pumping action?; To transport blood through blood vessels.
How many circuits do blood vessels form?; Two circuits.
What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?; It transports oxygen-poor blood from heart to lungs, and back to heart.
What happens to the blood in the lungs within the pulmonary circuit?; Blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2.
What is the function of the systemic circuit?; It transports oxygen-rich blood from heart to all body cells, and back to heart.
What does the blood deliver to cells in the systemic circuit?; Nutrients.
What does the blood remove from cells in the systemic circuit?; Wastes.
What type of blood does the left side of the heart contain?; Oxygen-rich blood.
What type of blood does the right side of the heart contain?; Oxygen-poor blood.
What are the two circuits through which blood runs in the body?; Pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.
Where does the pulmonary circuit transport blood?; To the lungs.
Where does the systemic circuit transport blood?; To the body cells.
What is the shape of the heart?; Cone-shaped.
Where is the heart located in the body?; In the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, superior to the diaphragm.
How many chambers does the heart have?; 4 chambers.
What are the upper chambers of the heart called?; Atria.
What are the lower chambers of the heart called?; Ventricles.
What is the function of the ventricles?; Pumping action.
How does heart size vary?; Heart size varies with body size.
Where does the heart lie in the body?; The heart lies in the thoracic cavity.
What is the average size of the heart?; 14 cm long and 9 cm wide.
Where is the heart located in relation to the sternum?; Posterior to the sternum.
Where is the heart located in relation to the lungs?; Medial to the lungs.
Where is the heart located in relation to the vertebral column?; Anterior to the vertebral column.
Where does the base of the heart lie?; The base lies beneath the 2nd rib.
Where does the apex of the heart lie?; The apex lies at the 5th intercostal space.
Where is the heart located in the human body?; The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs, behind the sternum, and above the diaphragm.
What structure is directly in front of the heart?; The sternum.
What structure lies directly below the heart?; The diaphragm.
What is the name given to the upper part of the heart?; The base of the heart.
What is the name given to the lower pointed part of the heart?; The apex of the heart.
What is the pericardium?; A covering over the heart and large blood vessels.
What is the fibrous pericardium?; The outer layer that surrounds a double-layered serous membrane.
Where is the parietal pericardium located?; Deep to the fibrous pericardium; it is the outer layer of the serous membrane.
What is the visceral pericardium?; The inner layer of the serous membrane that is attached to the surface of the heart; also called the epicardium.
What is another name for the visceral pericardium?; Epicardium.
What are the three distinct layers of the heart wall?; Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium.
What is another name for the epicardium?; Visceral pericardium.
Which layer of the heart wall is the outermost?; Epicardium.
Which layer of the heart wall is the thickest?; Myocardium.
What type of tissue composes the myocardium?; Cardiac muscle tissue.
Which layer of the heart wall forms the inner lining of all heart chambers?; Endocardium.
What is the thickness of the epicardium?; Thin layer.
What is the thickness of the endocardium?; Thin layer.
What is the composition of the epicardium (visceral pericardium)?; Serous membrane of connective tissue covered with epithelium and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers.
What function does the epicardium serve?; Forms a protective outer covering; secretes serous fluid.
What type of tissue makes up the myocardium?; Cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers.
What is the primary function of the myocardium?; Contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers.
Describe the composition of the endocardium.; Membrane of epithelium and underlying connective tissue, including blood vessels.
What role does the endocardium play in the heart?; Forms a protective inner lining of the chambers and valves.
How many chambers does the heart have?; 4 chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles)
What are the characteristics of the atria?; Thin-walled upper chambers; receive blood returning to the heart
What is the function of auricles in the heart?; Flap-like projections from atria that allow atrial expansion
What are the characteristics of the ventricles?; Thick-walled lower chambers; pump blood into arteries
What is the function of the right atrium?; Receives blood returning from the systemic circuit (from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus); pumps blood to the right ventricle
What is the function of the right ventricle?; Receives blood from the right atrium; pumps blood to the lungs
What is the function of the left atrium?; Receives blood from the pulmonary veins; pumps blood to the left ventricle
What is the function of the left ventricle?; Receives blood from the left atrium; pumps blood to the systemic circuit
Where is the tricuspid valve located?; Right atrioventricular orifice.
What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction.
Where is the pulmonary valve located?; Entrance to pulmonary trunk.
What is the function of the pulmonary valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation.
Where is the mitral valve located?; Left atrioventricular orifice.
What is the function of the mitral valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular contraction.
Where is the aortic valve located?; Entrance to aorta.
What is the function of the aortic valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation.
What are the two main arteries that supply blood to the heart shown in Figure 15.6?; Right pulmonary artery and Left pulmonary artery.
Identify the valve located between the right atrium and right ventricle in Figure 15.6.; Tricuspid valve.
Which valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle as shown in Figure 15.6?; Mitral (bicuspid) valve.
What is the name of the valve that prevents backflow into the right ventricle as shown in Figure 15.6?; Pulmonary valve.
What structure in Figure 15.6 is responsible for separating the right and left ventricles?; Interventricular septum.
Which large vein returns deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart as shown in Figure 15.6?; Superior vena cava.
In Figure 15.6, what structure returns deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the heart?; Inferior vena cava.
What is the function of the chordae tendineae shown in Figure 15.6?; To prevent valve inversion by anchoring the valve cusps to the papillary muscles.
Which valve is located at the exit of the left ventricle and prevents backflow into it as shown in Figure 15.6?; Aortic valve.
What is the role of the papillary muscles shown in Figure 15.6?; To contract and prevent the inversion or prolapse of the valves during ventricular contraction.
Which blood vessels return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium as shown in Figure 15.6?; Left pulmonary veins.
What is the main artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body as shown in Figure 15.6?; Aorta.
Which part of the heart is the first to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs as shown in Figure 15.6?; Left atrium.
In Figure 15.6, what is the name of the opening that allows blood to flow from the coronary arteries into the right atrium?; Opening of coronary sinus.
Which part of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs as shown in Figure 15.6?; Right ventricle.
What structure in Figure 15.6 ensures that blood flows in one direction through the heart?; Heart valves (Tricuspid valve, Mitral valve, Pulmonary valve, Aortic valve).
Which chamber of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body as shown in Figure 15.6?; Right atrium.
In Figure 15.6, what structure carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs?; Pulmonary trunk.
What is the function of the left ventricle as shown in Figure 15.6?; To pump oxygenated blood into the aorta and throughout the body.
What is the function of the tricuspid valve in the heart?; The tricuspid valve regulates blood flow between the right atrium and right ventricle.
Where is the mitral (bicuspid) valve located?; The mitral valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle.
What is the role of the aortic valve?; The aortic valve controls blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta.
What does the pulmonary valve control?; The pulmonary valve controls blood flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries.
What are chordae tendineae and where are they found?; Chordae tendineae are tendons that connect the papillary muscles to the tricuspid valve and mitral valve.
What is the function of papillary muscles in the heart?; Papillary muscles prevent the inversion or prolapse of the valves during ventricular contraction.
What is the significance of the interventricular septum?; The interventricular septum separates the left and right ventricles of the heart.
What structure in the heart is responsible for preventing backflow of blood into the atria?; The tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid) valves prevent backflow of blood into the atria.
What surrounds the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and the orifices between the atria and ventricles in the heart?; Rings of dense connective tissue.
What are the functions of the rings of dense connective tissue in the heart?; They provide attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers, and prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction.
What do the rings of dense connective tissue in the heart prevent during contraction?; Excess dilation of heart chambers.
What structures provide attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers?; Rings of dense connective tissue in the heart.
What makes up the skeleton of the heart?; Rings of dense connective tissue along with other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum.
What is the first step in the blood flow through the heart?; Blood from systemic circuit enters the venae cavae and coronary sinus.
After blood enters the venae cavae and coronary sinus, where does it go next?; Right atrium.
What valve does the blood pass through after the right atrium?; Tricuspid valve.
After passing through the tricuspid valve, where does the blood go?; Right ventricle.
What valve does the blood pass through after the right ventricle?; Pulmonary valve.
Where does the blood go after passing through the pulmonary valve?; Pulmonary trunk.
After the pulmonary trunk, where does the blood flow?; Pulmonary arteries.
Where does the blood go after the pulmonary arteries?; Pulmonary capillaries (lungs).
After the pulmonary capillaries, where does the blood flow?; Pulmonary veins.
Where does the blood go after the pulmonary veins?; Left atrium.
What valve does the blood pass through after the left atrium?; Mitral (bicuspid) valve.
After passing through the mitral (bicuspid) valve, where does the blood go?; Left ventricle.
What valve does the blood pass through after the left ventricle?; Aortic valve.
After passing through the aortic valve, where does the blood flow?; Aorta.
What is the final step in the blood flow through the heart?; Blood enters the systemic circuit.
Which arteries supply blood to the tissues of the heart?; The left and right coronary arteries.
What are the first two branches of the aorta?; The coronary arteries.
What is the function of the coronary arteries?; To supply blood to the tissues of the heart.
From which main artery do the right and left coronary arteries branch?; Aorta
What are the two main branches of the right coronary artery?; Posterior interventricular artery and Marginal artery
What are the two main branches of the left coronary artery?; Circumflex artery and Anterior interventricular artery
Which artery supplies blood to the myocardial capillaries in the ventricular walls of the heart?; Posterior interventricular artery
Which artery supplies blood to the myocardial capillaries in the walls of the right atrium and right ventricle?; Marginal artery
Which artery supplies blood to the myocardial capillaries in the walls of the left atrium and left ventricle?; Circumflex artery
Which artery supplies blood to the myocardial capillaries in the ventricular walls of the left side of the heart?; Anterior interventricular artery
What is the function of the cardiac veins in the heart?; To collect deoxygenated blood from the myocardial capillaries and return it to the heart.
Into which structure do the cardiac veins drain deoxygenated blood?; Coronary sinus
Where does the coronary sinus return deoxygenated blood?; Right atrium
What is the primary function of the aorta?; To carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.
Where does the superior vena cava transport blood?; It transports deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium.
What is the function of the left pulmonary artery?; To carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the left lung.
What is the role of the pulmonary trunk?; To carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arteries.
Where are the right pulmonary veins located and what is their function?; They are located on the right side of the heart and carry oxygenated blood from the right lung to the left atrium.
What is the function of the left coronary artery?; To supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle.
What is the significance of the great cardiac vein?; It drains deoxygenated blood from the anterior surface of the heart.
Where is the apex of the heart located?; At the bottom tip of the heart, pointing downwards to the left.
What is the function of the left ventricle?; To pump oxygenated blood into the aorta and throughout the body.
Where does the right atrium receive blood from?; From the superior and inferior vena cava, carrying deoxygenated blood from the body.
What does the left auricle do?; It acts as a small muscular pouch that increases the capacity of the left atrium.
What is the role of the right coronary artery?; To supply oxygenated blood to the right side of the heart muscle.
What is the function of the coronary sinus?; To collect deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and deliver it to the right atrium.
What is the function of the anterior interventricular artery?; To supply blood to the front of the heart and the interventricular septum.
What is the role of the left atrium?; To receive oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins and pump it into the left ventricle.
What is the function of the posterior interventricular artery?; To supply blood to the posterior part of the heart and the interventricular septum.
What is the function of the right ventricle?; To pump deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk and arteries.
What is the function of the inferior vena cava?; To carry deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium.
Where does the circumflex branch of the coronary artery supply blood?; To the left atrium and the side and back of the left ventricle.
What is the function of the middle cardiac vein?; To drain deoxygenated blood from the posterior part of the heart.
What is the cardiac cycle?; The events of a heartbeat.
How do the heart chambers function during the cardiac cycle?; In a coordinated manner.
What happens during atrial systole?; Atria contract while ventricles relax (ventricular diastole).
What happens during ventricular systole?; Ventricles contract while atria relax (atrial diastole).
During which phase do the ventricles relax?; During ventricular diastole.
During which phase do the atria relax?; During atrial diastole.
What is a heart transplant?; Replacement of most of a failing heart with a donor heart.
What is a Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD)?; A mechanical half-heart, used in some cases temporarily, until a donor heart is available.
What is an implantable replacement heart made of?; Titanium and plastic.
In what situation is an implantable replacement heart used?; In people that cannot have a heart transplant and do not have long to live.
What does stem cell technology allow in cardiac treatment?; Cardiac muscle tissue can now be cultured from altered somatic cells or from stem cells.
What future application is possible with stem cell technology in cardiac care?; The creation of 'stem cell heart patches'.
What happens to the pressure in the heart chambers during a cardiac cycle?; The pressure in the heart chambers rises and falls.
What causes the heart valves to open and close during the cardiac cycle?; Pressure changes in the heart chambers.
What is the state of the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The ventricles are relaxed.
Which valves are open during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The A-V valves are open and the semilunar valves are closed.
What percentage of blood flows passively from the atria into the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; About 70% of blood.
What happens to the remaining 30% of blood during atrial systole?; Atrial systole pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles, causing ventricular pressure to increase.
What happens to the A-V valves during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The A-V valves close.
What prevents the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria during ventricular systole?; The chordae tendineae.
What is the state of the atria during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The atria relax.
Where does blood flow into the atria from during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; From the venae cavae and pulmonary veins.
What happens to the ventricular pressure during ventricular systole?; The ventricular pressure increases and opens the semilunar valves.
Where does blood flow during ventricular systole?; Blood flows into the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
What does a heartbeat sound like through a stethoscope?; Lubb-dupp.
What causes the sounds heard through a stethoscope during a heartbeat?; The closing of heart valves and vibrations associated with a sudden slowing of blood flow during contraction/relaxation of chambers.
What is the first heart sound called?; Lubb.
During which phase does the 'lubb' sound occur?; During ventricular systole.
Which valves are associated with the 'lubb' sound?; The A-V valves.
What is the second heart sound called?; Dupp.
During which phase does the 'dupp' sound occur?; During ventricular diastole.
Which valves are associated with the 'dupp' sound?; The pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves.
What is a heart murmur?; An abnormal heart sound derived from incomplete closure of cusps of a valve.
Where can the sounds of the aortic valve be heard?; In the aortic area.
Where can the sounds of the pulmonary valve be heard?; In the pulmonary area.
Where can the sounds of the tricuspid valve be heard?; In the tricuspid area.
Where can the sounds of the mitral valve be heard?; In the mitral area.
What structure allows cardiac muscle cells to form branching networks?; Intercalated discs between cells.
What is the function of gap junctions in cardiac muscle cells?; They allow action potentials to spread through a network of cells.
What is a functional syncytium in cardiac muscle fibers?; A mass of merging cells that function as a unit.
Where are the two functional syncytia located in the heart?; In the atrial walls (atrial syncytium) and in the ventricular walls (ventricular syncytium).
What is the atrial syncytium?; A mass of merging cells in the atrial walls that function as a unit.
What is the ventricular syncytium?; A mass of merging cells in the ventricular walls that function as a unit.
What is the Cardiac Conduction System?; A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, which initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium.
What is the function of the Cardiac Conduction System?; It coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle.
What is the first component in the Cardiac Conduction System?; SA node.
What follows the SA node in the Cardiac Conduction System?; Atrial syncytium.
What component comes after the Atrial syncytium in the Cardiac Conduction System?; Junctional fibers.
What component follows the Junctional fibers in the Cardiac Conduction System?; AV node.
What is the role of the AV node in the Cardiac Conduction System?; It receives impulses from the Junctional fibers and passes them to the AV bundle.
What follows the AV node in the Cardiac Conduction System?; AV bundle.
What component comes after the AV bundle in the Cardiac Conduction System?; Bundle branches.
What is the role of the Bundle branches in the Cardiac Conduction System?; They carry impulses to the Purkinje fibers.
What follows the Bundle branches in the Cardiac Conduction System?; Purkinje fibers.
What is the final component of the Cardiac Conduction System?; Ventricular syncytium.
What is the sequence of impulse conduction in the Cardiac Conduction System?; SA node → Atrial syncytium → Junctional fibers → AV node → AV bundle → Bundle branches → Purkinje fibers → Ventricular syncytium.
What is the role of the SA (Sinoatrial) Node in the cardiac conduction system?; The SA Node acts as the pacemaker and initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart.
What does the Internodal Atrial Muscle do in the cardiac conduction system?; It conducts impulses from the SA node to the atria.
What is the function of Junctional Fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; They conduct impulses from the SA node to the AV node.
What is the primary role of the AV (Atrioventricular) Node?; It conducts impulses to the AV Bundle and delays the impulse so that the atria finish contracting before the ventricles contract.
What is the function of the AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His)?; It conducts impulses rapidly between the SA node and the bundle branches.
What role do the Left and Right Bundle Branches play in the cardiac conduction system?; They split off from the AV bundle and conduct impulses to Purkinje fibers on both sides of the heart.
What is the function of Purkinje Fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; They are large fibers that conduct impulses to the ventricular myocardium.
What are the major components of the cardiac conduction system?; SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibers.
What is the function of the Purkinje fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; They stimulate muscle cells in the ventricles, causing them to contract with a twisting motion.
How do ventricles contract when stimulated by Purkinje fibers?; They contract with a twisting motion.
Where are the whorled networks of muscle located in the heart?; In the walls of the ventricles.
What is an Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)?; A recording of electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle.
What is an ECG used to assess?; The heart’s ability to conduct impulses.
What does the P wave in an ECG represent?; Atrial depolarization; occurs just prior to atrial contraction.
What does the QRS complex in an ECG represent?; Ventricular depolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction.
What does the T wave in an ECG represent?; Ventricular repolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation.
Why is the record of atrial repolarization not visible in an ECG?; It is 'hidden' in the large QRS complex, since ventricular depolarization is a much larger event.
What does Figure 15.19 illustrate?; The cardiac cycle and the corresponding ECG (Electrocardiogram) readings.
What does an ECG measure?; It measures the electrical activity of the heart.
What is represented by the P wave on an ECG?; Atrial depolarization.
What does the QRS complex on an ECG represent?; Ventricular depolarization.
What is indicated by the T wave on an ECG?; Ventricular repolarization.
During which part of the cardiac cycle does atrial contraction occur?; During the P wave.
What occurs during the QRS complex in the cardiac cycle?; Ventricles contract.
What signifies the start of the cardiac cycle in an ECG?; The P wave.
What phase follows the QRS complex in the cardiac cycle?; Ventricular systole.
What does the interval between the end of the T wave and the next P wave represent?; Ventricular diastole.
What are the phases of the cardiac cycle shown in Figure 15.20?; Atrial systole, Ventricular systole, and Ventricular diastole.
What pressure changes occur during the cardiac cycle?; Aortic pressure, ventricular pressure, and atrial pressure.
How does ventricular volume change during the cardiac cycle?; Ventricular volume increases during diastole and decreases during systole.
What does the ECG trace show during the cardiac cycle?; The ECG trace shows the electrical activity of the heart, including P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.
What heart sounds are associated with the cardiac cycle?; The heart sounds include the closing of the AV valves (first heart sound) and the closing of the semilunar valves (second heart sound).
What event is indicated by the P wave in an ECG?; The P wave indicates atrial depolarization.
What event is indicated by the QRS complex in an ECG?; The QRS complex indicates ventricular depolarization.
What event is indicated by the T wave in an ECG?; The T wave indicates ventricular repolarization.
What causes the first heart sound?; The closing of the AV valves at the beginning of ventricular systole.
What causes the second heart sound?; The closing of the semilunar valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole.
During which phase of the cardiac cycle does the ventricular volume increase?; During ventricular diastole.
During which phase of the cardiac cycle does the ventricular volume decrease?; During ventricular systole.
How long is one cardiac cycle?; Approximately 0.8 seconds.
What happens to aortic pressure during ventricular systole?; Aortic pressure increases.
What happens to ventricular pressure during ventricular systole?; Ventricular pressure increases.
When do the AV valves close during the cardiac cycle?; At the beginning of ventricular systole.
When do the semilunar valves close during the cardiac cycle?; At the beginning of ventricular diastole.
What is the significance of the heart sounds in the cardiac cycle?; They indicate the closing of the heart valves.
What is the role of the atria during the cardiac cycle?; The atria contract to push blood into the ventricles.
What is the role of the ventricles during the cardiac cycle?; The ventricles contract to push blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery.
What node normally controls the heart rate?; The SA node.
What influences can modify the heart rate via sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers?; Physical exercise, body temperature, fight-or-flight response, and the concentration of ions such as K+ and Ca2+.
How do parasympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Parasympathetic impulses via vagus nerves decrease heart rate by influencing the SA and AV nodes.
How do sympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Sympathetic impulses via accelerator nerves increase heart rate by influencing the SA and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium.
Where do baroreceptor reflexes arise from?; Baroreceptor reflexes arise from the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata.
What do baroreceptor reflexes balance?; Baroreceptor reflexes balance the inhibitory and excitatory effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers.
What does the cardiac control center regulate?; The cardiac control center regulates autonomic impulses to the heart.
What does the baroreceptor reflex involve?; A general reflex arc.
What is the role of autonomic impulses in the baroreceptor reflex?; They alter heart action.
Where are baroreceptors located in the cardiovascular system?; In the carotid sinuses and aortic arch.
What type of neuron carries information from the baroreceptors to the central nervous system?; Sensory or afferent neuron.
What part of the nervous system processes information from the baroreceptors?; The central nervous system.
What type of neuron transmits impulses from the central nervous system to the heart in the baroreceptor reflex?; Motor or efferent neuron.
Which part of the brain is involved in the baroreceptor reflex?; The medulla oblongata.
What is the effector organ in the baroreceptor reflex?; The heart.
What are arrhythmias?; Altered heart rhythms.
What is fibrillation?; Uncoordinated, chaotic contraction of small areas of myocardium.
Is atrial fibrillation life-threatening?; No, atrial fibrillation is not life-threatening.
Is ventricular fibrillation life-threatening?; Yes, ventricular fibrillation is often fatal.
What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat, >100 beats/min at rest.
What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat, <60 beats/min at rest.
What is flutter?; Rapid, regular contraction of a heart chamber, 250-350 beats/min.
What is a premature beat?; A beat that occurs before expected in the normal cardiac cycle, often originating from ectopic regions of the heart.
What is an ectopic pacemaker?; When damage to the SA node leads to the AV node taking over as the secondary pacemaker, beating at 40-60/min instead of 70-80.
What is an artificial pacemaker?; A device used to treat disorders of the cardiac conduction system; it is implantable and battery-powered.
What are blood vessels?; Organs of the cardiovascular system.
What do blood vessels form in the cardiovascular system?; A closed circuit, transporting blood from the heart to body cells (or lungs) and back to the heart.
What is the function of arteries?; To carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart.
What is the function of arterioles?; To receive blood from the arteries and carry it to the capillaries.
What occurs at the capillaries?; Exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells.
What is the function of venules?; To receive blood from the capillaries and conduct it to veins.
What is the function of veins?; To receive blood from venules and carry it back to the atria of the heart.
What is the function of the endothelium in blood vessels?; The endothelium lines the interior surface of blood vessels, providing a smooth surface for blood flow.
What is the tunica media composed of?; The tunica media is composed of smooth muscle and elastic fibers.
What is the role of valves in veins?; Valves in veins prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring it moves toward the heart.
What are the three layers of blood vessel walls?; The three layers are the tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
What type of blood vessel is shown at the bottom of the image?; An arteriole.
What type of blood vessel is shown at the top of the image?; A venule.
What is the primary difference between arteries and veins in terms of structure?; Arteries have thicker tunica media compared to veins, which have valves to prevent backflow.
What is the lumen in a blood vessel?; The lumen is the hollow interior through which blood flows.
What type of connective tissue is found in blood vessels?; Elastic and collagen fibers.
Which blood vessel layer is responsible for vasoconstriction and vasodilation?; The tunica media.
What is angiogenesis?; Formation of new blood vessels.
What mainly controls angiogenesis?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF).
Why is angiogenesis regulated in the body?; Because excess, deficient, or inappropriate blood vessel formation can cause common diseases.
What does the body secrete in response to a blocked coronary artery?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF).
How can VEGF be delivered if the body's secretion is insufficient?; VEGF may be able to be delivered in time-release capsules.
Why do tumors secrete VEGF?; To nourish themselves.
What are antiangiogenesis drugs used to treat?; Cancer and age-related macular degeneration.
What type of blood vessel has thick, strong walls thicker than the walls of veins?; Arteries
What are the three layers or tunics of an artery?; Tunica interna (intima), tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia)
What is the innermost layer of an artery called?; Tunica interna (intima)
What is the middle layer of an artery, composed of smooth muscle and elastic tissue, called?; Tunica media
What is the outer layer of an artery, consisting of connective tissue, called?; Tunica externa (adventitia)
What is the function of arteries in the cardiovascular system?; To transport blood under high blood pressure
What do arteries give rise to?; Smaller arterioles
How do the walls of arterioles compare to those of arteries?; Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries but have the same three layers or tunics.
What happens to the walls of arterioles as they become smaller?; The walls of the middle and outer layers become thinner as arterioles become smaller.
What functions can both arteries and arterioles perform?; Both arteries and arterioles can undergo vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
What are arterioles?; Small blood vessels that branch out from arteries and lead to capillaries.
What do small arterioles contain in their walls?; A few muscle fibers.
What type of muscle cells are found in the walls of arterioles?; Smooth muscle cells.
What is the function of precapillary sphincters in arterioles?; They regulate blood flow into capillaries.
What is the role of the endothelium in arterioles?; It lines the inner surface of the arterioles.
What are capillaries?; Capillaries are the smallest-diameter blood vessels.
What do capillaries connect?; Capillaries connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules.
What are capillaries extensions of?; Capillaries are extensions of the inner lining of arterioles.
What do the walls of capillaries consist of?; The walls of capillaries consist of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only.
Are capillaries permeable?; Capillaries are semi-permeable.
How is capillary blood flow regulated?; Capillary blood flow is regulated mainly by precapillary sphincters, which are smooth muscle surrounding capillary when it branches off arteriole or metarteriole.
How are substances exchanged in capillaries?; By diffusion.
What are the openings in the walls of capillaries called?; Thin slits where endothelial cells overlap.
How does the size of openings in capillaries vary?; The sizes of openings vary among tissues.
What determines the permeability of capillaries?; The size of the slits.
What is the relationship between metabolic rate and capillary density in tissue?; Higher the metabolic rate in a tissue, the denser its capillary networks.
Which tissues have a rich capillary supply and why?; Muscle and nerve tissue have a rich capillary supply because they use a large amount of O2 and nutrients.
Why do tissues with lower metabolic rates have fewer capillaries?; Tissues with lower metabolic rates, such as cartilage, have fewer capillaries because they require less oxygen and nutrients.
What are examples of tissues with high metabolic rates and dense capillary networks?; Muscle and nerve tissue.
What is an example of a tissue with a low metabolic rate and fewer capillaries?; Cartilage.
What is the primary function of capillaries?; To exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts between blood and tissue around cells.
What is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange?; Diffusion.
How do lipid-soluble substances transfer through capillary walls?; They diffuse through the cell membrane.
How do water-soluble substances transfer through capillary walls?; They diffuse through membrane channels and slits.
What forces molecules through the capillary membrane during filtration?; Hydrostatic pressure.
What generates the pressure required for filtration in capillaries?; Ventricular contraction.
What creates osmotic pressure in capillaries?; The presence of impermeant solute, such as plasma proteins, inside capillaries.
What does osmotic pressure do in capillaries?; It draws water into capillaries, opposing filtration.
What happens at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; H2O and other substances leave the capillary because hydrostatic pressure > osmotic pressure.
What causes H2O and other substances to leave the capillary at the arteriolar end?; Hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure.
What happens at the venular end of a capillary?; H2O enters the capillary because osmotic pressure > hydrostatic pressure.
What causes H2O to enter the capillary at the venular end?; Osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure.
What is the net outward force at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 11 mm Hg (35 mm Hg outward force of hydrostatic pressure - 24 mm Hg inward force of osmotic pressure).
What is the net inward force at the venular end of a capillary?; 8 mm Hg (24 mm Hg inward force of osmotic pressure - 16 mm Hg outward force of hydrostatic pressure).
What is the hydrostatic pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 35 mm Hg.
What is the osmotic pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 24 mm Hg.
What is the hydrostatic pressure at the venular end of a capillary?; 16 mm Hg.
What is the osmotic pressure at the venular end of a capillary?; 24 mm Hg.
What is the direction of fluid movement at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; Outward from the capillary.
What is the direction of fluid movement at the venular end of a capillary?; Inward into the capillary.
What are venules?; Microscopic vessels that transport blood from the capillaries to veins.
How do the walls of venules compare to those of arterioles?; Venules have thinner walls and less smooth muscle than arterioles.
What is the primary function of venules?; To transport blood from the capillaries to veins.
How do the walls of veins compare to those of arteries?; Veins have thinner walls than arteries, consisting of 3 layers or tunics.
How is the tunica media of veins different from that of arteries?; The tunica media of veins is less developed compared to that of arteries.
Under what pressure do veins carry blood?; Veins carry blood under relatively low pressure.
What is one of the functions of veins?; Veins function as blood reservoirs.
What feature do many veins have that assists with blood flow?; Many veins have flap-like valves.
What percentage of blood is found in systemic veins at any given time?; 60-70%
What percentage of blood is found in the lungs at any given time?; 10-12%
What percentage of blood is found in the heart at any given time?; 8-11%
What percentage of blood is found in systemic arteries at any given time?; 10-12%
What percentage of blood is found in capillaries at any given time?; 4-5%
What fraction of blood is in veins and venules at any time?; About 2/3
What type of blood vessels contain the largest volume of blood?; Systemic veins
What are the three layers of an artery wall?; An endothelial lining, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue.
What is the function of an artery?; Carries blood under relatively high pressure from the heart to arterioles.
How does the wall of an arteriole compare to that of an artery?; An arteriole has a thinner wall than an artery but with three layers; smaller arterioles have an endothelial lining, some smooth muscle tissue, and a small amount of connective tissue.
What is the function of an arteriole?; Connects an artery to a capillary, helps control the blood flow into a capillary by vasoconstricting or vasodilating.
What type of wall does a capillary have?; A single layer of squamous epithelium.
What is the function of a capillary?; Allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to be exchanged between the blood and tissue fluid; connects an arteriole to a venule.
How does the wall of a venule compare to that of an arteriole?; A venule has a thinner wall than an arteriole and less smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue.
What is the function of a venule?; Connects a capillary to a vein.
How does the wall of a vein compare to that of an artery?; A vein has a thinner wall than an artery but with similar layers; the middle layer is more poorly developed; some have flap-like valves.
What is the function of a vein?; Carries blood under relatively low pressure from a venule to the heart; valves prevent a backflow of blood; serves as a blood reservoir.
What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of cholesterol plaque form in the inner lining of walls of arteries.
What is an aneurysm?; A bulge in the wall of an artery, formed when blood pressure dilates a weakened area of the vessel; can burst the wall of the artery.
What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein; common disorder.
What are varicose veins?; Abnormal and irregular dilations in superficial veins; most common in legs.
What is blood pressure?; The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels.
What role does blood pressure play in the circulatory system?; Blood pressure circulates the blood.
To what does the term 'blood pressure' most commonly refer?; Pressure in systemic arteries.
Is there blood pressure throughout the vascular system?; Yes, there is blood pressure throughout the vascular system.
How does blood move throughout the vascular system?; Blood moves from higher to lower pressure throughout the system.
What happens to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles contract?; It rises.
What happens to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles relax?; It falls.
What is systolic pressure (SP)?; The maximum pressure reached during ventricular contraction.
What is diastolic pressure (DP)?; The minimum pressure remaining before the next ventricular contraction.
What is pulse pressure (PP)?; The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SP - DP).
What is mean arterial pressure (MAP)?; The average pressure in the arterial system; represents the average force driving blood to the tissues.
How is mean arterial pressure (MAP) calculated?; MAP = DP + 1/3 PP.
How is blood pressure typically stated?; As a fraction (e.g., 120/80).
In what units is blood pressure measured?; mm Hg.
What device is typically used to measure arterial blood pressure?; A sphygmomanometer.
What components are typically included in a sphygmomanometer?; Air control valve, bulb, pressure gauge, and inflatable cuff.
What part of the sphygmomanometer is used to inflate the cuff?; The bulb.
What part of the sphygmomanometer shows the blood pressure reading?; The pressure gauge.
What is the function of the air control valve in a sphygmomanometer?; To control the release of air from the cuff.
What happens to blood pressure as the distance from the left ventricle increases?; Blood pressure decreases.
What is the highest point of blood pressure in the systemic circulation?; In the aorta, just after the left ventricle.
What are the two types of blood pressure shown in the graph?; Systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.
In which blood vessels does the largest drop in blood pressure occur?; In the arterioles.
How does blood pressure change as it moves through the capillaries?; Blood pressure continues to decrease.
What is the blood pressure trend in veins compared to arteries?; Blood pressure is lower in veins than in arteries.
Why does blood pressure decrease as it moves away from the heart?; Due to the resistance of blood vessels and the increasing distance from the heart's pumping action.
What is the blood pressure like in the vena cava?; Blood pressure is at its lowest in the vena cava.
What is the typical systolic pressure in the aorta?; Approximately 120 mm Hg.
At which point is the diastolic pressure at its highest?; In the large arteries, just after the aorta.
What are the sites for measuring the arterial pulse?; Temporal a., Carotid a., Facial a., Brachial a., Radial a., Femoral a., Popliteal a., Dorsalis pedis a., Posterior tibial a.
Where is the temporal artery pulse located?; On the side of the forehead.
Where can you measure the carotid artery pulse?; On the side of the neck.
Where is the facial artery pulse located?; Near the jawline.
Where can you find the brachial artery pulse?; On the inner side of the upper arm.
Where is the radial artery pulse measured?; On the wrist, near the base of the thumb.
Where can you measure the femoral artery pulse?; In the groin area.
Where is the popliteal artery pulse located?; Behind the knee.
Where can you find the dorsalis pedis artery pulse?; On the top of the foot.
Where is the posterior tibial artery pulse measured?; On the inner side of the ankle.
What happens to blood pressure when blood volume increases?; Blood pressure increases.
How does an increase in heart rate affect blood pressure?; It increases blood pressure.
What effect does an increase in stroke volume have on blood pressure?; It increases blood pressure.
What is the effect of increased blood viscosity on blood pressure?; It increases blood pressure.
How does an increase in peripheral resistance influence blood pressure?; It increases blood pressure.
What is stroke volume (SV)?; The volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction (~70 mL/beat).
What is cardiac output (CO)?; The volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute. CO = SV × HR.
What is the formula for cardiac output?; CO = SV × HR.
Calculate the cardiac output if the stroke volume is 70 mL/beat and the heart rate is 72 beats/min.; Cardiac output is 5,040 mL/min.
How does blood pressure vary with cardiac output?; Blood pressure varies directly with cardiac output.
What happens to blood pressure if stroke volume (SV) or heart rate (HR) increases?; An increase in SV or HR causes an increase in CO, which increases blood pressure (BP).
What constitutes blood volume?; The sum of volumes of plasma and formed elements.
How does blood volume vary?; It varies with age, body size, and gender.
What is the usual blood volume for adults?; About 5 liters.
How does blood volume differ between females and males?; About 4 to 5 liters in a female and 5 to 6 liters in a male.
What percentage of body weight does blood volume constitute?; 8% of body weight.
How is blood pressure related to blood volume?; Blood pressure is directly proportional to blood volume.
What can change blood pressure?; Any factor that changes blood volume can change blood pressure.
What happens to blood pressure when blood volume decreases due to hemorrhage?; Blood pressure decreases.
What is peripheral resistance (PR)?; The force of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels.
What must blood pressure overcome in order to flow?; Peripheral resistance (PR).
How do factors that change peripheral resistance (PR) affect blood pressure?; Factors that change PR also change blood pressure.
What effect does vasoconstriction of arterioles have on peripheral resistance (PR) and blood pressure?; Vasoconstriction of arterioles increases PR, which increases blood pressure.
What happens to arteries when blood is pumped out of the ventricles?; Arteries swell and rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against PR in arterioles and capillaries.
What is viscosity?; The difficulty with which molecules of fluid flow past each other.
How does increased viscosity affect blood flow?; Greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance to blood flow.
What increases the viscosity of the blood?; Blood cells and plasma proteins increase the viscosity of the blood.
How does increased resistance to flow affect blood pressure?; Greater the resistance to flow, greater the force necessary to transport the blood, which increases blood pressure.
What factors can alter blood viscosity?; Any factor that alters the concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins also alters blood viscosity.
How does anemia affect blood viscosity and blood pressure?; Anemia lowers the concentration of blood cells, which lowers blood viscosity and subsequently lowers blood pressure.
What two factors determine blood pressure (BP)?; Cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR).
What is the formula for blood pressure (BP)?; BP = CO × PR.
Why is the regulation of cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR) important?; Because maintenance of blood pressure requires regulation of these two factors.
What happens when blood pressure deviates from normal levels?; It stimulates responses that adjust cardiac output and peripheral resistance to return blood pressure towards normal.
What happens to cardiac output when blood pressure increases?; Cardiac output increases.
What is the initial response to an increase in blood pressure in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses?; Baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses are stimulated.
What do baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses do when stimulated by increased blood pressure?; They send sensory impulses to the cardiac center.
What type of impulses are sent to the heart when baroreceptors are stimulated?; Parasympathetic impulses.
What effect does parasympathetic stimulation have on the SA node when blood pressure is high?; The SA node is inhibited.
What happens to heart rate when the SA node is inhibited?; Heart rate decreases.
What is the final outcome of the process initiated by increased blood pressure?; Blood pressure returns toward normal.
What is the initial response to rising blood pressure according to Figure 15.37?; Stimulation of baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses.
After baroreceptors are stimulated, where are sensory impulses sent?; To the vasomotor center.
What happens to the vasomotor center when it receives sensory impulses due to high blood pressure?; The vasomotor center is inhibited.
What effect does the inhibition of the vasomotor center have on sympathetic impulses to arteriole walls?; Less frequent sympathetic impulses are sent to arteriole walls.
What happens to arterioles when sympathetic impulses decrease?; Vasodilation of arterioles occurs.
What is the result of vasodilation of arterioles on peripheral resistance?; Peripheral resistance decreases.
What is the final outcome of the process initiated by rising blood pressure?; Blood pressure returns toward normal.
What is hypertension?; Long-lasting elevated arterial blood pressure.
What are some causes of hypertension?; Unknown cause, increased Na+ intake, psychological stress, obesity, and kidney disease.
Why is hypertension known as the 'silent killer'?; Because it may not cause any direct symptoms.
What cardiovascular condition does hypertension contribute to?; Atherosclerosis.
What are potential complications of hypertension in the coronary arteries?; Coronary thrombosis or embolism.
What are potential cerebral complications of hypertension?; Cerebral thrombosis, embolism, hemorrhage, transient ischemic attack (TIA), or cerebral vascular accident (CVA, stroke).
What are some preventive measures for hypertension?; Healthy diet and weight, regular exercise, and limiting Na+ intake.
What are some treatments for hypertension?; Diuretics and sympathetic inhibitors.
How does obesity contribute to hypertension?; By increasing peripheral resistance.
How does psychological stress contribute to hypertension?; By activating the sympathetic nervous system.
How does kidney disease contribute to hypertension?; Via the renin-angiotensin response.
What happens to blood pressure as blood moves through the arterial system and into the capillary network?; Blood pressure decreases.
How much pressure remains at the venous ends of the capillaries?; Little pressure remains at the venous ends of the capillaries.
Is venous blood flow entirely a direct result of heart action?; No, it is only partly a direct result of heart action.
What are the three factors that venous blood flow is dependent on?; Skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins.
How does skeletal muscle contraction affect venous blood flow?; Skeletal muscle contraction helps push blood through the veins.
How do breathing movements affect venous blood flow?; Breathing movements help facilitate the flow of blood through the veins.
How does vasoconstriction of veins affect venous blood flow?; Vasoconstriction of veins helps increase venous blood flow.
Which veins drain into the right atrium?; All veins except those returning to the heart from the lungs.
What is the pressure in the right atrium called?; Central venous pressure.
What factors influence central venous pressure?; Factors that alter the flow of blood into the right atrium.
How does central venous pressure affect the body?; It affects pressure within the peripheral veins.
What happens to central venous pressure when the heart beats weakly?; Central venous pressure increases.
What is the result of increased central venous pressure on peripheral veins?; Blood backs up into the peripheral veins.
What condition can be caused by increased central venous pressure?; Peripheral edema.
How does an increase in blood volume or venoconstriction affect central venous pressure?; It increases blood flow to the right atrium, which increases central venous pressure.
What adaptations does the cardiovascular system undergo with regular aerobic exercise?; Increased pumping efficiency, blood volume, hemoglobin concentration, and number of mitochondria.
By how much can the heart enlarge as a result of regular aerobic exercise?; 40% or more.
What happens to stroke volume as a result of regular aerobic exercise?; Stroke volume increases.
What changes occur in heart rate and blood pressure with regular aerobic exercise?; Heart rate and blood pressure decrease.
To benefit the cardiovascular system, to what percentage of maximum should heart rate increase during exercise?; 70 to 85% of maximum (220 - your age).
How long should each exercise session last to benefit the cardiovascular system?; 30 to 60 minutes.
How often should exercise be performed each week to benefit the cardiovascular system?; At least 3 to 4 times per week.
What are the two pathways formed by blood vessels?; The pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
Which circuit of blood vessels is responsible for carrying blood between the heart and lungs?; The pulmonary circuit.
Which circuit of blood vessels is responsible for carrying blood between the heart and the rest of the body?; The systemic circuit.
What is the main function of the pulmonary circuit?; To oxygenate the blood by exchanging gases in the lungs.
What is the main function of the systemic circuit?; To deliver oxygenated blood to the tissues and organs throughout the body.
What is the starting point of the pulmonary circuit?; Right ventricle.
What is the pathway of blood in the pulmonary circuit?; Right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium.
What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles?; Low in O₂ and high in CO₂.
Where does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary circuit?; Pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries.
What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood in pulmonary venules and veins?; Rich in O₂ and low in CO₂.
Where does oxygen-rich blood move from and to in the systemic circuit?; From the left atrium to the left ventricle.
What action sends blood into the systemic circuit?; Contraction of the left ventricle.
What is the pathway of blood in the systemic circuit?; Left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium.
What does high osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid do in the alveoli?; It draws water out of the alveoli.
What is the role of solutes that fail to enter the alveoli?; They contribute to the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid.
Where does slight net outflow of fluid occur according to the diagram?; From the pulmonary capillary.
What happens to any excess water in the alveoli?; It is drawn out by the higher osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid.
Where does fluid from the interstitial space enter according to the diagram?; It enters the lymphatic capillary or alveolar (blood) capillary.
What is the largest artery in the body?; The aorta.
What does the aorta supply blood to?; All of the systemic arteries.
What regions does the right and left coronary arteries supply?; Heart
Which portion of the aorta supplies the heart?; Ascending aorta
What regions does the celiac artery supply?; Organs of upper digestive tract
Which portion of the aorta supplies the organs of the upper digestive tract?; Abdominal aorta
What regions does the brachiocephalic trunk supply?; Right upper limb, right side of head
Which branch of the aorta supplies the right upper limb and right side of head?; Brachiocephalic trunk
What regions does the phrenic artery supply?; Diaphragm
Which branch of the aorta supplies the diaphragm?; Phrenic artery
What regions does the left common carotid artery supply?; Left side of head
Which branch of the aorta supplies the left side of the head?; Left common carotid artery
What regions does the superior mesenteric artery supply?; Portions of small and large intestines
Which branch of the aorta supplies portions of the small and large intestines?; Superior mesenteric artery
What regions does the left subclavian artery supply?; Left upper limb
Which branch of the aorta supplies the left upper limb?; Left subclavian artery
What regions does the suprarenal artery supply?; Adrenal gland
Which branch of the aorta supplies the adrenal gland?; Suprarenal artery
What regions does the renal artery supply?; Kidney
Which branch of the aorta supplies the kidney?; Renal artery
What regions does the bronchial artery supply?; Bronchi
Which branch of the aorta supplies the bronchi?; Bronchial artery
What is the function of the superior vena cava?; It returns deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart.
What vessel carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart?; The pulmonary veins.
What is the aortic arch?; A part of the aorta that bends between the ascending and descending aorta.
What is the function of the pulmonary trunk?; It carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
What is the role of the right pulmonary artery?; It carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
What is the right auricle?; A small, ear-like extension of the right atrium.
What is the function of the left common carotid artery?; It supplies oxygenated blood to the head and neck.
What is the left subclavian artery responsible for?; Supplying oxygenated blood to the left arm.
What is the brachiocephalic trunk?; A major artery that supplies blood to the right arm and the head and neck.
What is the left auricle?; A small, ear-like extension of the left atrium.
What is the role of the right subclavian vein?; It drains blood from the right arm and returns it to the heart.
What is the function of the left internal jugular vein?; It drains blood from the brain, face, and neck, and returns it to the heart.
What is the left pulmonary artery?; A vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the left lung.
What is the ligamentum arteriosum?; A small ligament that is the remnant of the ductus arteriosus formed within three weeks after birth.
What is the function of the right internal jugular vein?; It drains blood from the brain, face, and neck, and returns it to the heart.
What is the right common carotid artery responsible for?; Supplying oxygenated blood to the right side of the head and neck.
What major artery branches off from the abdominal aorta to supply the liver?; Hepatic artery
Which artery supplies blood to the spleen?; Splenic artery
What is the name of the artery that supplies blood to the kidneys?; Renal artery
Which artery branches off from the abdominal aorta to supply the intestines?; Superior mesenteric artery
What is the name of the artery that supplies blood to the lower intestines?; Inferior mesenteric artery
What are the final branches of the abdominal aorta called?; Common iliac arteries
What major artery branches off from the abdominal aorta to supply the stomach?; Left gastric artery
Which artery is referred to as the major supply line for the pancreas and spleen?; Splenic artery
Which artery branches off from the abdominal aorta to supply the liver, stomach, and spleen?; Celiac artery
Which artery supplies blood to the small intestine and part of the large intestine?; Superior mesenteric artery
Which arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck?; Branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries.
Where do the subclavian and common carotid arteries branch from?; They branch from the aorta.
What are the main branches of the common carotid artery?; The internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery.
Which artery supplies blood to the brain from the subclavian artery?; The vertebral artery.
What is the function of the internal carotid artery?; It supplies blood to the brain.
What is the function of the external carotid artery?; It supplies blood to the face and neck.
Which artery is labeled as 'Basilar a.' in the diagram?; The basilar artery, formed by the union of the vertebral arteries.
What is the role of the occipital artery?; It supplies blood to the posterior scalp.
Which artery supplies the thyroid gland?; The superior thyroid artery.
What is the significance of the carotid sinus?; It contains baroreceptors that help regulate blood pressure.
What is the cerebral arterial circle also known as?; Circle of Willis.
Which artery systems does the circle of Willis join?; The carotid and vertebral artery systems.
What is the main function of the arteries in the circle of Willis?; To supply blood to the brain.
How does the circle of Willis provide an advantage in blood supply to the brain?; It provides alternate pathways for blood to reach the brain.
Where do the cerebral arteries emerge from to supply blood to brain tissues?; From the circle of Willis.
Which artery gives off branches in the neck and continues into the arm?; The subclavian artery.
What is the continuation of the subclavian artery in the arm called?; The brachial artery.
What are the main branches of the subclavian artery in the neck?; The subclavian artery gives off multiple branches in the neck.
What artery supplies blood to the shoulder and upper limb?; The subclavian artery, which continues as the brachial artery.
Which arteries are found in the upper limb branching from the brachial artery?; Radial artery and ulnar artery.
What arteries supply the deep and superficial palmar arches in the hand?; The ulnar and radial arteries.
Which artery supplies the posterior humeral circumflex?; The axillary artery.
What is the main artery of the thumb?; The principal artery of the thumb.
Which artery is responsible for the deep brachial artery?; The brachial artery.
What does the radial recurrent artery branch off from?; The radial artery.
Which vessels are involved in supplying blood to the thoracic wall?; The subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta.
What is the role of the subclavian artery in the thoracic wall?; It is one of the vessels that supply blood to the thoracic wall.
How does blood reach the thoracic wall?; Via branches of several vessels including the subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta.
Which artery supplies blood to the posterior intercostal region?; The thoracic aorta.
What are the primary branches that supply blood to the thoracic wall?; The subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta.
Into which arteries does the abdominal aorta divide?; The common iliac arteries.
What regions do the common iliac arteries supply blood to?; The pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs.
Into which arteries does the common iliac artery divide?; The internal iliac artery and external iliac artery.
Which artery supplies blood to the pelvic and gluteal areas?; The internal iliac artery.
What arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs?; The external iliac arteries.
Where are the external iliac arteries located?; They are located in the pelvic region and extend to the lower limbs.
What figure shows the arteries to the lower limb?; Figure 15.49.
What is the primary function of the external iliac arteries?; To provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs.
What is the main vein that returns blood from the upper body to the heart?; Superior vena cava.
Which vein is responsible for draining blood from the head and neck?; Internal jugular vein.
What is the function of the subclavian vein?; It returns blood from the arms to the heart.
Which vein runs along the arm and is commonly used for intravenous access?; Cephalic vein.
What vein is located in the lower arm and is often used for blood draws?; Median cubital vein.
What vein returns blood from the lower body to the heart?; Inferior vena cava.
Which vein collects blood from the kidneys?; Renal vein.
What is the main vein in the thigh?; Femoral vein.
Which vein is located behind the knee?; Popliteal vein.
What is the longest vein in the body, running along the length of the leg?; Great saphenous vein.
Which vein is located in the lower leg and drains into the popliteal vein?; Small saphenous vein.
What vein is responsible for draining blood from the digestive organs?; Hepatic portal vein.
What vein runs along the side of the neck and drains blood from the brain?; External jugular vein.
Which vein is formed by the union of the subclavian and internal jugular veins?; Brachiocephalic vein.
What is the function of the axillary vein?; It drains blood from the upper limb and empties into the subclavian vein.
Which vein runs down the center of the arm and is often used for intravenous access?; Basilic vein.
What vein collects blood from the pelvic organs and lower limbs?; Common iliac vein.
Which vein is responsible for draining blood from the liver?; Hepatic vein.
What is the main vein that drains blood from the lower leg and foot?; Posterior tibial vein.
Which vein is located in the groin area and drains into the femoral vein?; Great saphenous vein.
What does systemic venous circulation return to the heart?; Blood after exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and cells.
How do vessels of the venous system originate?; From the merging of capillaries into venules, venules into small veins, and small veins into larger ones.
Why are venous pathways difficult to follow?; Due to irregular networks and unnamed tributaries.
What do the pathways of larger veins usually parallel?; Arteries of the same name.
Into what do all systemic veins converge?; The superior and inferior venae cavae.
Through which part of the heart does venous blood return?; The right atrium.
What do the external jugular veins drain blood from?; The face, scalp, and superficial neck.
What do the internal jugular veins drain blood from?; The brain, and deep portions of the face and neck.
Which veins drain blood from the face, scalp, and superficial neck?; External jugular veins.
Which veins drain blood from the brain, and deep portions of the face and neck?; Internal jugular veins.
What are the two systems of veins that drain the upper limb and shoulder?; Deep set of veins and superficial set of veins.
Which veins are part of the deep set of veins in the upper limb?; Digital veins, radial and ulnar veins, and brachial veins.
What is the sequence of veins in the deep set from the fingers to the shoulder?; Digital veins → radial and ulnar veins → brachial veins.
Which veins are part of the superficial set of veins in the upper limb?; Basilic and cephalic veins.
What is the sequence of veins in the superficial set from the palm to the shoulder?; Anastomoses in palm and wrist → basilic and cephalic veins.
Which vein joins the brachial vein in the upper limb?; Basilic vein.
Which vein joins the axillary vein in the upper limb?; Cephalic vein.
Which veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls?; Tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins.
Into which vein does the azygos vein drain directly?; The superior vena cava.
What is unusual about portal veins?; They do not transport blood directly to the heart.
What unique venous pathway drains the abdominal viscera?; The hepatic portal system.
Which organs' capillaries drain into the hepatic portal vein?; Stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen.
What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?; It transports blood to the liver for processing before it is delivered to the inferior vena cava.
Where is the blood from the hepatic portal vein delivered after processing in the liver?; To the inferior vena cava.
What are portal systems?; Portal systems filter blood through 2 sets of capillaries instead of the usual 1 set.
Name two examples of portal systems.; Hepatic Portal System and Renal Portal System.
What is the unique function of the second set of capillaries in portal systems?; The second set of capillaries performs a unique function in filtering blood.
How does the Hepatic Portal System differ from the usual blood circulation?; It filters blood through two sets of capillaries instead of one.
How does the Renal Portal System function differently from typical blood circulation?; It filters blood through two sets of capillaries instead of one.
Into what two groups do veins from the lower limb drain?; Deep and superficial groups of veins.
What veins do the deep set of veins in the foot drain into?; Anterior and posterior tibial veins.
What vein do the anterior and posterior tibial veins drain into?; Popliteal vein.
What vein does the popliteal vein drain into?; Femoral vein.
What vein does the femoral vein drain into?; External iliac vein.
What veins do the superficial set of veins in the foot drain into?; Small and great saphenous veins.
What is the longest vein in the body?; The great saphenous vein.
What happens to cholesterol in blood vessels as people age?; Cholesterol deposition in the blood vessels increases.
What change occurs in coronary arteries with aging?; Coronary arteries become narrowed.
How does the size of the heart change with age?; The heart may shrink slightly or enlarge due to disease.
What happens to the proportion of cardiac muscle in the heart with aging?; The proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle declines.
What type of tissue increases in the heart with aging?; Fibrous connective tissue.
What happens to the adipose tissue in the heart with age?; The amount of adipose tissue in the heart increases.
Which parts of the heart may thicken with age?; Heart valves and the left ventricular wall.
How does systolic blood pressure change with age?; Systolic blood pressure increases.
What happens to resting heart rate as people age?; Resting heart rate decreases.
What happens to the lumens of large arteries with aging?; The lumens of large arteries narrow as arterial walls thicken.
What change occurs in arterial elasticity with age?; Arterial elasticity decreases.
What factors contribute to cardiovascular disease?; Both environmental and hereditary factors.
What is Marfan syndrome?; A connective tissue defect involving an abnormal type of the protein fibrillin.
What can Marfan syndrome result in?; Weakening of the aorta wall, which can lead to its bursting and sudden death.
What is Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; An inherited overgrowth of myocardium caused by an abnormal myosin chain in cardiac muscle.
What can Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy result in?; Sudden death.
What causes heart failure in individuals with an inherited deficiency of a mitochondrial enzyme?; The inability to break down long-chain fatty acids and use them for energy.
What is the primary energy source for cardiac muscle?; Long-chain fatty acids.
What is Familial hypercholesterolemia?; A condition where abnormal LDL receptors on liver cells do not take up cholesterol from the blood.
What can Familial hypercholesterolemia result in?; High cholesterol and coronary artery disease.
What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; A disease involving the deposition of cholesterol plaque on the inner walls of coronary arteries.
What does CAD lead to in the coronary arteries?; Obstruction of coronary arteries and O2 deficiency in cardiac muscle.
What conditions are often associated with CAD?; High serum cholesterol and hypertension.
What is the chest pain caused by CAD upon exertion called?; Angina pectoris.
What major health event is CAD a contributing factor to?; Myocardial infarction (heart attack).
What are the two main treatments for CAD?; Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and coronary bypass surgery.
Where is the best location to hear the aortic valve?; In the second intercostal space right of the sternum.
Where is the best location to hear the pulmonary valve?; In the second intercostal space left of the sternum.
Where is the best location to hear the tricuspid valve?; In the fifth intercostal space left of the sternum.
Where is the best location to hear the mitral valve?; In the fifth intercostal space on the left at the nipple line.
Where can the pulse for the temporal artery be taken?; Anterior to the ear.
Where can the pulse for the carotid artery be taken?; The inferior medial portion of the neck.
Where can the pulse for the brachial artery be taken?; In the distal brachial region on the anterior side.
Where can the pulse for the radial artery be taken?; The lateral side of the wrist on the anterior side.
Where can the pulse for the femoral artery be taken?; In the inguinal region.
Where can the pulse for the popliteal artery be taken?; In the popliteal region.
Where can the pulse for the dorsalis pedis artery be taken?; The anterior ankle.
Where can the pulse for the posterior tibia artery be taken?; The posterior ankle.
What are the functions of the organs of the cardiovascular system?; The organs of the cardiovascular system are responsible for circulating blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and removing waste products.
What are the coverings of the heart?; The coverings of the heart include the pericardium, which consists of the fibrous pericardium and the serous pericardium.
What are the layers that compose the wall of the heart?; The layers that compose the wall of the heart are the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
What are the major parts of the heart?; The major parts of the heart include the atria, ventricles, valves, septum, and major blood vessels such as the aorta, pulmonary arteries, and veins.
What is the function of the atria in the heart?; The atria receive blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs and pump it into the ventricles.
What is the function of the ventricles in the heart?; The ventricles pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.
What is the pathway of blood through the heart?; Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, then to the right ventricle, from there to the lungs, then to the left atrium, and finally to the left ventricle before being pumped out to the body.
What is coronary circulation?; Coronary circulation refers to the flow of blood through the vessels that supply the heart muscle itself, including the coronary arteries and veins.
What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle consists of a sequence of events that occur when the heart beats, including the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the atria and ventricles.
How are heart sounds produced?; Heart sounds are produced by the closing of the heart valves. The 'lub' sound is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves, and the 'dub' sound is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves.
What are the parts of a normal ECG pattern?; The parts of a normal ECG pattern include the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.
What is the significance of a normal ECG pattern?; A normal ECG pattern indicates proper electrical activity of the heart, showing that the heart is functioning correctly.
How is the cardiac cycle controlled?; The cardiac cycle is controlled by electrical impulses generated by the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, and the conduction pathways in the heart.
What are the major types of blood vessels and their functions?; The major types of blood vessels include arteries (carry blood away from the heart), veins (carry blood to the heart), and capillaries (exchange substances between blood and tissues).
How are substances exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid surrounding body cells?; Substances are exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid through diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.
How is blood pressure produced?; Blood pressure is produced by the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood.
How is blood pressure controlled?; Blood pressure is controlled by various mechanisms including the autonomic nervous system, hormones such as adrenaline and angiotensin, and the kidneys' regulation of blood volume.
What mechanisms aid in returning venous blood to the heart?; Mechanisms that aid in returning venous blood to the heart include the skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, and the presence of valves in veins to prevent backflow.
What are the two circuits of the cardiovascular system?; The pulmonary and systemic circuits.
What is the main function of the pulmonary circuit?; To carry blood to the lungs for gas exchange and return it to the heart.
What is the main function of the systemic circuit?; To carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and return deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Name a major artery in the human body.; The aorta.
Name a major vein in the human body.; The superior vena cava.
What is the role of arteries in the cardiovascular system?; To carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues.
What is the role of veins in the cardiovascular system?; To carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart.
What changes occur in the cardiovascular system with aging?; Decreased elasticity of blood vessels, thickening of the heart walls, and reduced efficiency of the heart.
How does aging affect blood pressure?; Aging can lead to increased blood pressure due to less elastic arteries.
What is a common cardiovascular issue in the elderly?; Atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of plaques in the arteries.