Theories and Methods- PM vs M and LM.
Postmodernism
Era that follows on from modernity- ideas of Foucault.
No single truth- versions of the truth.
Emerged in the late 1970s thought to have accelerated after collapse of communism in late 1980s.
Globalisation and increased access to knowledge have challenged old metanarratives of society- social changes e.g. diversity.
Features
Increased diversity and choice- greater tolerance of “others” and individual choices over lifestyles. E.g. education is not longer one size fits all- based on individualised preferences- growth of resources from universities online.
Increased hybridity- merging of cultures and development of new ones. E.g. subcultural groups in education- Archer’s research on Muslim boys who created an Afro- American identities.
Influence of globalisation- consumer habits, culture, beliefs and media.
Lyotard
People have developed “incredulity towards metanarratives”- they no longer blindly believe that there is one truth. Stopped believing big stories- distrust in experts and “fake news”, criticising journalism due to possible bias.
People try to develop their own perspective on events- “technical language games”. A worldview that represented an individual perspective of society.
Solutions to problems are small scale rather than all encompassing.
Baudrillard
Death of the social and rise of individualism- more concern over individual rather than society, decline of communities.
Signs and symbols in society come to have meanings of their own that we cannot distinguish from reality- hyperreality. Media saturation causes signs and symbols to bleed into reality.
We see images that are often an illusion of reality- these are called simulacrum- most evident in media e.g. influencers and youtubers.
States the first Gulf War in 1991 was hyperreality and not real as people only saw it through the lens of media coverage, causing people to not have to same sense of war like in other conflicts.
Role of the Media
Media- saturation in society helps to create hyperreality and simulacra through bombarding people with images until we no longer believe what is real.
Examples of hyperreality- Instagram celebrities, social media influencers- society turns to these simulacra’s that are perceived as real to guide our opinions and raise questions of legitimate sources. E.g. anti-vaccination campaigns.
Society becomes fragmented and unstable- reactions against these narratives- no set of fixed values.
Postmodernity and narratives
People no longer believe in a single truth and question the role of “experts”. E.g. climate change deniers and COVID pandemic.
Society broken down into smaller individual narratives and multiple identities and loss of social cohesion- leads to uncertainty and confusion.
Structural identities such as class, gender and ethnicity become less certain and more flexible- more focussed on an individual. Shown in the rise of intersexuality.
Evidence of postmodernism
Diversity of family and personal lives.
Greater fluidity in relationships, identity, and appearance.
Emergence of hybrid cultures.
Impacts of globalisation- education, family, crime and beliefs/ spirituality.
Increased media- saturation.
Evaluation
Ignores power and inequality and ignores ruling- class control of institutions such as media and education- Marxism.
Deterministic- people absorb media content and are unable to distinguish between reality and hyperreality and seeing the information is different than following it.
Structures in society still exist- class, gender and ethnicity are still relevant concepts in contemporary society, more diverse but still relevant- media debates surrounding discrimination and white privilege.
Modernism
Usually typified by period following the Enlightenment but most evident in the period following the industrial revolution.
Extends to the 1970s, but some theorists suggest that we are still living in the modern era.
Structural approach to society, with importance of social institutions, social structures and social processes most evident.
Features
Bell and Newby- industrialisation and urbanisation- growth of urban areas, movement from agriculture to manufacturing. Catalyst for modern era due to social movement.
Growth of capitalism and private industry which developed additional social classes- such as middle class.
Society is secure, predictable and stable, therefore meta-narratives (Marxism, Functionalism etc) can be used to provide structure and meaning to society.
Concepts
Individualism- personal needs took priority over communal interests, and some traditional values are rejected. society was held together by organic solidarity (personal needs more important), in industrial societies rather than mechanical solidarity, which is characterised by pre-industrial societies.
this shift towards individualism was evident in the rise of the nuclear family, which prioritised social and geographical mobility over the communal needs of the traditional extended family.
Weber- Move towards scientific rationality- decide on aims and find most efficient way to achieve those. Scientific thought and technological reasoning are favoured over supernatural explanations. E.g. diseases once attributed to divine will are now attributed to bacteria and viruses.
Gradual secularisation- decline in religious beliefs, but belief in morality.
Bureaucracy- Large organisations increasingly used to organise society, e.g. welfare state, NHS, education system- controlled efficiently and effectively through industrialisation and capitalism.
Evidence
Traditional forms of family, one size fits all education, limited social mobility or adapted such as Chester’s neo- conventional family structure.
relevance of metanarratives such as Marxism and Feminism- highlighting conflicts in society.
Scientific approaches to society- use of quantitative data in education, welfare, work- assumes there are no individual differences, rather structures.
The emergence of Nation- States in the 1800s- like Italy, France, and the USA, characterised by centralised governance with defined geographic boundaries.
Evaluation
Crises of capitalism- individualism choices and reactions against capitalist ideologies. E.g. 2008 crisis.
Deterministic surrounding class, gender and ethnicity.
Decline of the metanarrative- decline in trust around experts due to fake news.
Late Modernity
Era of rapid social and economic changes between modern and postmodern eras- Giddens.
“Risk society”- death of old certainties and birth of insecurity and risk- Beck.
Liquid modernity- era of fluidity, flexibility and change around sexuality, class and education- Bauman.
Concepts
Individualisation- focus on individual goals, needs and aspirations at expense of more collectivist ideas. Traditional values hold less power over individuals, who have the freedom to make choices based on personal beliefs and values. We increasingly must take individual responsibility for our actions, driving further reflexivity and shaping these personal beliefs and values based on out individual experiences.
Increased insecurity/ risk- consciousness- in relationships, employment, from the environment, science. E.g. nuclear threats.
Reflexivity- individuals reflect upon their place in society as a result of increasing changes. Societal norms and identities are constantly re-evaluated. People are more likely to reflect, admit mistakes and make changes to themselves and their behaviour, driving constant changes of societal norms and identities.
Dis-embedding- we are no longer embedded in a local community or environment. Instead, we belong to a global community that has been prompted by technological advances reducing the need for face-to-face interaction and breaking down geographical barriers. Global communities through new media can prompt dramatic and rapid social change.
Examples of late modernity
Growth of identity choice- recognition of LGBTQ+ rights.
Expansion of technology- the internet and AI, has enabled global interactions, leading to more dis-embedding.
Social protests addressing systematic issues like racism and environmentalism show that traditional structures have weakened, and individuals are increasingly shaping their own lives through personal choice, reflection and awareness of global risks. However, social change can be seen as being exaggerated and protests have been happening all throughout history, however traditional influences are weakening.
Individualism in society as a reaction to neo-liberal economics- reduction in collective actions.
Serial monogamy and changes to relationships.
Media usage- impersonal interaction on social media.
Increased risk from science e.g. climate change.
Insecurity of employment- 0 hour contracts, self employment.
Evaluation
Baumann’s idea of a fluid society is criticised by those that suggest that class and gender structures still exist. Definitions might have changed, but polarisation of views demonstrates structural forces in society.
Some may argue that late modernity is only a localised phenomenon, with some parts of society rejecting features of late modernity, seeing it as cultural imperialism from the West.
Elliot- critical of media usage outside of the West- lack of digital technologies. 50% of continents like Asia not having access to the internet.
Marxists argue that the increase in insecurity and of society becoming one of risk is due to the increased spread and acceleration of capitalism, not social change.