Exam 3 Intro to Psychlogy (Developmental Psychology / Sex / Personality / Social Psychology)
Developmental Psychology:
Psychology Definition: Studies how people grow and change from infancy through adulthood.
Summary: Helps us understand how kids and adults change and learn.
Maturation:
Psychology Definition: Biological process of becoming fully grown and developed.
Summary: About our bodies naturally growing and becoming adults.
Physical Development:
Psychology Definition: Changes in body like growing taller and developing motor skills.
Summary: How our bodies change and become stronger.
Cognitive Development:
Psychology Definition: Growth in thinking, learning new skills, problem-solving.
Summary: How our brains learn and understand as we grow.
Socioemotional Development:
Psychology Definition: Learning to manage emotions, interact with others, form relationships.
Summary: About handling feelings, making friends, and getting along.
Biopsychosocial Perspective:
Psychology Definition: Considers biological, psychological, and social factors in development and behavior.
Summary: Helps understand how our bodies, minds, and environment shape us.
Nature-Nurture:
Psychology Definition: Debate about whether genes (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture) have a greater influence on development and behavior.
Summary: Nature-nurture explores how our genes and experiences shape who we are and how we behave.
Continuity and Stages:
Psychology Definition: Views on development debating whether changes happen gradually and continuously or in distinct stages.
Summary: Continuity and stages explore whether growth occurs smoothly over time or in distinct steps.
Critical Period:
Psychology Definition: Specific time early in life when exposure to certain experiences is necessary for normal development.
Summary: Critical period refers to a window of time when certain experiences are crucial for proper development.
Stability and Change:
Psychology Definition: Debate on whether our traits and behaviors remain consistent over time (stability) or change as we age and encounter new experiences (change).
Summary: Stability and change explore whether aspects of our personality and behavior stay the same or evolve throughout life.
Longitudinal Method:
Psychology Definition: The longitudinal method involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period to observe changes and developments over time.
Summary: This method allows researchers to track changes in the same people and see if earlier differences predict later differences.
Pros:
Can assess change over time.
Can see if differences at one time point predict differences at another time point.
Cons:
Requires significant time and cost to run the study.
Selective attrition (dropouts) may occur, potentially biasing results.
Practice effects may influence results as participants become familiar with the study.
Cohort effects might impact findings due to characteristics specific to the group being studied.
Cross-Sectional Method:
Psychology Definition: The cross-sectional method involves studying different groups of people at a single point in time to compare various age groups or cohorts.
Summary: This method provides a snapshot of different age groups at one time but cannot track changes within individuals.
Pros:
Faster and cheaper than longitudinal studies.
No issues with dropouts since data is collected from different individuals at the same time.
No practice effects because participants only complete assessments once.
Cons:
Susceptible to cohort effects where differences between age groups may be due to factors other than development.
Cannot assess developmental change within individuals over time.
Cross-Sequential Method:
Psychology Definition: The cross-sequential method combines elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by studying multiple cohorts over time.
Summary: This method allows researchers to assess both developmental changes and cohort effects by tracking different age groups over time.
Strengths:
Combines strengths of both longitudinal and cross-sectional methods.
Can assess for cohort effects, distinguishing between age-related changes and group-specific differences.
23 Pairs of Chromosomes (46 Strands):
Psychology Definition: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 strands, which contain genetic information.
Summary: These chromosomes carry the genetic blueprint for human development and function.
DNA:
Psychology Definition: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the growth, development, and functioning of living organisms.
Summary: DNA is the genetic material that provides the instructions for creating and maintaining an organism.
Genes:
Psychology Definition: Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for making proteins and determining specific traits and characteristics.
Summary: Genes are the units of heredity that influence various traits and functions in an organism.
Sex Chromosomes (23rd Pair) XX Female, XY Male:
Psychology Definition: The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines an individual's sex, with XX indicating female and XY indicating male.
Summary: The sex chromosomes determine whether a person is male or female.
Monozygotic Twins (Identical Twins):
Psychology Definition: Monozygotic twins are formed from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos, resulting in genetically identical siblings.
Summary: Identical twins come from one egg and share nearly the same genetic makeup.
Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal Twins):
Psychology Definition: Dizygotic twins are developed from two separate fertilized eggs and share about 50% of their genetic material, similar to regular siblings.
Summary: Fraternal twins come from two different eggs and are genetically similar like regular siblings.
Twin Studies:
Psychology Definition: Twin studies compare the similarities and differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.
Summary: Twin studies help researchers explore how much of our traits are due to genetics versus environment by comparing identical and fraternal twins.
Adoption Studies:
Psychology Definition: Adoption studies involve comparing adopted children to their biological and adoptive families to assess the influence of genetics and environment on development.
Summary: Adoption studies help determine the roles of genetics and environment by looking at how adopted children resemble their biological and adoptive families.
Gametes:
Psychology Definition: Gametes are reproductive cells (sperm in males and eggs in females) that carry genetic information and combine during fertilization to form a new organism.
Summary: Gametes are the cells involved in reproduction, merging to create a zygote.
Germinal Period:
Psychology Definition: The germinal period is the first two weeks of prenatal development, starting from conception and ending with the implantation of the zygote in the uterine wall.
Summary: The germinal period includes the early stages of development, from fertilization to implantation.
Conception:
Psychology Definition: Conception is the process when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
Summary: Conception is the moment when sperm and egg unite to begin pregnancy.
Zygote:
Psychology Definition: A zygote is a single cell formed by the union of sperm and egg, containing the full set of chromosomes needed for the development of a new organism.
Summary: The zygote is the initial cell formed at conception that will develop into an embryo and then a fetus.
Implantation:
Psychology Definition: Implantation is the process by which the developing embryo attaches to the lining of the uterus, where it will continue to grow and develop.
Summary: Implantation occurs when the embryo embeds itself in the uterine wall to establish pregnancy.
Embryo:
Psychology Definition: An embryo is the developing organism from about two weeks after conception until the end of the eighth week of pregnancy, during which major organs and systems begin to form.
Summary: The embryo stage involves the early development of vital organs and structures.
Fetus:
Psychology Definition: A fetus is the developing organism from the ninth week of pregnancy until birth, characterized by continued growth and maturation of organs and systems.
Summary: The fetus undergoes significant growth and refinement of organs from the ninth week to birth.
Placenta:
Psychology Definition: The placenta is an organ that forms during pregnancy, providing nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and removing waste products from the fetal blood.
Summary: The placenta connects the fetus to the mother, enabling nutrient and waste exchange.
Umbilical Cord:
Psychology Definition: The umbilical cord is a tube-like structure connecting the fetus to the placenta, containing blood vessels that facilitate the transfer of nutrients and oxygen.
Summary: The umbilical cord links the fetus to the placenta, crucial for nutrient and waste exchange.
Amniotic Sac:
Psychology Definition: The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and cushions the developing fetus, providing a protective environment.
Summary: The amniotic sac encases the fetus in fluid, protecting and cushioning it during pregnancy.
Teratogens:
Psychology Definition: Teratogens are substances or factors that can cause malformations or developmental issues in a fetus during pregnancy.
Summary: Teratogens are harmful agents that can negatively impact fetal development.
Sensitive Periods:
Psychology Definition: Sensitive periods are specific times during development when an organism is particularly receptive to certain types of experiences or environmental influences.
Summary: Sensitive periods are times when certain developmental experiences are especially important.
Principle of Dose-Response:
Psychology Definition: The principle of dose-response refers to the relationship between the amount of exposure to a teratogen and the severity of its effects on prenatal development.
Summary: The dose-response principle explains how the level of exposure to harmful agents affects developmental outcomes.
Sleeper Effects:
Psychology Definition: Sleeper effects are delayed or latent effects of early experiences or exposures that may not become apparent until later in development.
Summary: Sleeper effects are developmental issues that show up later, even though the initial exposure happened earlier.
Effects of Alcohol Exposure:
Psychology Definition: Alcohol exposure during pregnancy can lead to a range of developmental and behavioral problems in the fetus, known collectively as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD).
Summary: Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can result in various developmental problems in the baby.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS):
Psychology Definition: Fetal alcohol syndrome is a severe form of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders characterized by distinctive facial features, growth deficiencies, and central nervous system impairments resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure.
Summary: Fetal alcohol syndrome is a serious condition caused by drinking alcohol during pregnancy, leading to physical and developmental problems.
Reflexes:
Psychology Definition: Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli that are present from birth and help protect and support the infant's development.
Summary: Reflexes are automatic reactions to stimuli that help infants respond to their environment and support their survival.
Rooting Reflex:
Psychology Definition: The rooting reflex is an innate response in newborns where they turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek or mouth is touched, helping them locate the nipple for feeding.
Summary: The rooting reflex helps infants find the nipple to begin feeding by turning their head and opening their mouth when their cheek is touched.
Sucking Reflex:
Psychology Definition: The sucking reflex is an automatic, instinctive action where infants suck on objects placed in their mouth, which is crucial for feeding and nourishment.
Summary: The sucking reflex involves infants automatically sucking on objects in their mouth, which is important for feeding.
Axon Growth:
Psychology Definition: Axon growth refers to the process by which nerve cells (neurons) extend their long, slender projections (axons) to establish connections with other neurons or muscles.
Summary: Axon growth is how neurons develop long projections to connect with other cells, essential for forming the nervous system's communication network.
Synaptic Pruning:
Psychology Definition: Synaptic pruning is the process during brain development where excess or unused synaptic connections between neurons are eliminated to increase the efficiency of neural communication.
Summary: Synaptic pruning involves removing extra or unused neural connections to make the brain's communication more efficient.
Piaget:
Psychology Definition: Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children's thinking evolves through distinct stages.
Summary: Piaget studied how children's thinking changes as they grow, proposing stages of cognitive development.
Schemas:
Psychology Definition: Schemas are mental structures or frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information based on past experiences.
Summary: Schemas are like mental templates that help us understand and organize new information.
Cognitive Equilibrium:
Psychology Definition: Cognitive equilibrium is the state in which a person's cognitive schemas are balanced and able to effectively process new information without confusion.
Summary: Cognitive equilibrium is when our mental frameworks are stable and able to handle new information smoothly.
Assimilation:
Psychology Definition: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing cognitive schemas without changing the schemas.
Summary: Assimilation involves adding new information to our existing mental frameworks without altering them.
Disequilibrium:
Psychology Definition: Disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be easily integrated into existing schemas, leading to cognitive discomfort and the need for adaptation.
Summary: Disequilibrium happens when new information doesn't fit with what we already know, causing confusion.
Accommodation:
Psychology Definition: Accommodation is the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that does not fit into current schemas.
Summary: Accommodation involves changing our mental frameworks or creating new ones to include new information.
Sensorimotor:
Psychology Definition: The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory (from birth to about 2 years old), characterized by learning through sensory experiences and motor actions.
Summary: The sensorimotor stage is when infants learn by interacting with their surroundings through their senses and actions.
Object Permanence:
Psychology Definition: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Summary: Object permanence is the realization that things still exist even when we can't see them.
Preoperational:
Psychology Definition: The preoperational stage is Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (ages 2 to 7), where children begin to use language and symbols but lack logical operations.
Summary: In the preoperational stage, children start using language and symbols but have trouble with logical thinking.
Egocentrism:
Psychology Definition: Egocentrism in Piaget’s theory refers to the inability of preoperational children to see things from perspectives other than their own.
Summary: Egocentrism is when kids can’t understand things from viewpoints other than their own.
Conservation:
Psychology Definition: Conservation is the understanding that certain properties of objects (like volume or mass) remain the same despite changes in their form or appearance.
Summary: Conservation is the idea that objects stay the same even if their shape changes.
Concrete Operations:
Psychology Definition: The concrete operational stage is Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 11), where children gain the ability to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.
Summary: In the concrete operational stage, children can think logically about real events and understand concepts like conservation.
Formal Operations:
Psychology Definition: The formal operational stage is Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development (from around age 12 onwards), characterized by the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.
Summary: The formal operational stage is when individuals start to think abstractly and solve problems logically.
Vygotsky:
Psychology Definition: Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning.
Summary: Vygotsky focused on how social interactions and culture influence learning and cognitive development.
Scaffolding:
Psychology Definition: Scaffolding is the support provided by an educator or more knowledgeable person to help a learner achieve a higher level of understanding or skill.
Summary: Scaffolding is the help given to learners to support their progress to more advanced understanding or skills.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
Psychology Definition: The zone of proximal development is the range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable person but cannot yet perform independently.
Summary: The ZPD is the gap between what learners can do on their own and what they can achieve with assistance.
Temperament:
Psychology Definition: Temperament refers to the inherent traits and characteristics that influence how a person reacts to their environment and experiences, such as their mood and adaptability.
Summary: Temperament is the natural way people respond to the world, affecting their mood and reactions.
Easy Babies:
Psychology Definition: Easy babies are infants with a generally positive mood, regular sleeping and eating patterns, and adaptability to new situations.
Summary: Easy babies are cheerful, adaptable, and have predictable routines.
Difficult Babies:
Psychology Definition: Difficult babies are infants who exhibit intense reactions, irregular sleep and eating patterns, and difficulty adapting to new experiences.
Summary: Difficult babies are often fussy, have irregular routines, and struggle with new situations.
Slow to Warm Up Babies:
Psychology Definition: Slow to warm up babies are infants who may be initially cautious or withdrawn in new situations but gradually become more comfortable over time.
Summary: Slow to warm up babies are shy at first but become more comfortable with time.
Harlow’s Monkey Studies:
Psychology Definition: Harlow’s monkey studies involved experiments with infant rhesus monkeys to explore attachment, demonstrating that monkeys preferred comfort and security from a soft surrogate mother over a wire one providing food.
Summary: Harlow’s studies showed that baby monkeys preferred comfort from a soft mother figure over just food, highlighting the importance of emotional attachment.
Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Attachment is the emotional bond formed between an infant and their caregiver, which influences the child’s development and future relationships.
Summary: Attachment is the strong emotional connection between a baby and their caregiver that impacts the child’s growth and relationships.
Secure Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Secure attachment is characterized by a child feeling safe and confident when their caregiver is present and seeking comfort and reassurance from them when needed.
Summary: Secure attachment means a child feels safe with their caregiver and turns to them for comfort.
Avoidant Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Avoidant attachment is when a child avoids or ignores their caregiver and shows little emotional response to their presence or absence.
Summary: Avoidant attachment involves a child seeming distant and indifferent to their caregiver’s presence.
Ambivalent (or Anxious-Resistant) Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Ambivalent attachment is when a child is overly dependent on their caregiver and shows intense distress when the caregiver leaves, yet may not be easily comforted upon their return.
Summary: Ambivalent attachment involves a child being very upset when their caregiver leaves and hard to soothe when they return.
Theory of Mind:
Psychology Definition: Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.
Summary: Theory of Mind is understanding that other people have their own thoughts and feelings.
False Belief Tasks:
Psychology Definition: False belief tasks are used to assess a child’s understanding that other people can hold beliefs about the world that are different from their own and may be incorrect.
Summary: False belief tasks test if a child can recognize that others may have beliefs that are different from reality.
Autism:
Psychology Definition: Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
Summary: Autism is a condition that affects how a person interacts, communicates, and behaves, often involving repetitive actions.
Erikson:
Psychology Definition: Erik Erikson was a developmental psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages of development across the lifespan, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.
Summary: Erikson developed a theory describing eight stages of human development, each involving a key conflict that shapes our personality.
Trust vs. Mistrust:
Psychology Definition: Trust vs. Mistrust is the first stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from birth to about 18 months, where infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust based on their caregivers’ responsiveness and reliability.
Summary: In this stage, infants learn to trust or mistrust others based on how well their needs are met.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt:
Psychology Definition: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt is the second stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring from about 18 months to 3 years, where toddlers learn to assert their independence and develop a sense of self-control.
Summary: Toddlers develop a sense of independence or feel shame and doubt depending on how they are supported in exploring their autonomy.
Initiative vs. Guilt:
Psychology Definition: Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from about 3 to 6 years, where children begin to take initiative and engage in activities, balancing their ambitions with guilt over potential failures or mistakes.
Summary: Preschoolers learn to take initiative in their activities or feel guilt if they think they’ve done something wrong.
Industry vs. Inferiority:
Psychology Definition: Industry vs. Inferiority is the fourth stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from about 6 years to puberty, where children develop a sense of competence and achievement or feel inferior compared to their peers.
Summary: School-aged children either develop confidence in their skills or feel inferior when comparing themselves to others.
Identity vs. Role Confusion:
Psychology Definition: Identity vs. Role Confusion is the fifth stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring during adolescence, where individuals explore and establish their personal identity and values, or experience confusion about their role in society.
Summary: Adolescents work on forming their personal identity or feel confused about their role in the world.
Intimacy vs. Isolation:
Psychology Definition: Intimacy vs. Isolation is the sixth stage in Erikson's theory, occurring in early adulthood, where individuals seek to form deep, meaningful relationships or risk feeling isolated and lonely.
Summary: Young adults either form close, intimate relationships or face isolation and loneliness.
Generativity vs. Stagnation:
Psychology Definition: Generativity vs. Stagnation is the seventh stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring in middle adulthood, where individuals strive to contribute to society and support the next generation, or feel a sense of stagnation and self-absorption.
Summary: Adults focus on contributing to society and guiding the next generation, or feel stuck and self-centered.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair:
Psychology Definition: Ego Integrity vs. Despair is the eighth and final stage in Erikson's theory, occurring in late adulthood, where individuals reflect on their life and either achieve a sense of fulfillment and integrity or experience regret and despair.
Summary: Older adults reflect on their life and either feel fulfilled and at peace or regretful and despairing.
Puberty:
Psychology Definition: Puberty is the period of physical and hormonal changes during adolescence that leads to sexual maturity and the development of secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: Puberty is the time when teens undergo physical and hormonal changes that result in sexual maturity.
Primary Sex Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Primary sex characteristics are the physical traits directly involved in reproduction, such as the development of reproductive organs like ovaries and testes.
Summary: Primary sex characteristics include the organs essential for reproduction, like ovaries in females and testes in males.
Secondary Sex Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Secondary sex characteristics are physical traits that develop during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development and body hair.
Summary: Secondary sex characteristics are features like body hair and breast development that appear during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.
Menarche:
Psychology Definition: Menarche is the term for a girl’s first menstrual period, marking the onset of menstruation and reproductive capability.
Summary: Menarche is the first occurrence of menstruation in girls, signaling the start of their reproductive cycle.
Spermarche:
Psychology Definition: Spermarche is the term for a boy’s first ejaculation, indicating the beginning of sperm production and sexual maturity.
Summary: Spermarche is the first time boys ejaculate, marking the start of their ability to produce sperm.
Predictors of Menarche Timing:
Psychology Definition: Predictors of menarche timing include genetic factors, nutritional status, body weight, and overall health, which influence when a girl will start menstruating.
Summary: Factors like genetics, nutrition, and health affect when a girl will experience her first menstrual period.
Teenage Brain Development: Limbic System Development:
Psychology Definition: The limbic system is a part of the brain involved in emotion and reward processing, which matures during adolescence and influences behavior and emotional responses.
Summary: The limbic system, which handles emotions and rewards, develops during the teenage years, affecting emotional reactions and behavior.
Teenage Brain Development: Frontal Lobe Maturation:
Psychology Definition: The frontal lobe is responsible for higher-order cognitive functions such as decision-making, planning, and impulse control, and it matures more slowly during adolescence.
Summary: The frontal lobe, which controls thinking and decision-making, matures gradually during the teenage years, impacting judgment and impulse control.
Define teratogens and explain each of the following teratogen-related concepts (a) sensitive period, (b) the principle of dose response, and (c) sleeper effects. The definition of teratogens and each explanation is each worth ¾ of a point. This question is worth three points.
Explain what occurs in each of Piaget’s cognitive development stages (a) sensorimotor, (b) preoperational, (c) concrete operations, and (d) formal operations. Each explanation is worth ¾ of a point. This question is worth three points.
Sex:
Psychology Definition: Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormone levels, and reproductive/sexual anatomy.
Summary: Sex is about the biological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes and reproductive organs.
Sex Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: Sex chromosomes are the chromosomes that determine an individual's sex, with XX typically indicating female and XY indicating male.
Summary: Sex chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes that decide whether someone is male or female.
Gender:
Psychology Definition: Gender refers to the social and psychological attributes, roles, and expectations associated with being male or female, which may not necessarily align with biological sex.
Summary: Gender is about the social roles and identities associated with being male or female, which can be different from biological sex.
Sexuality:
Psychology Definition: Sexuality encompasses an individual's sexual orientation, preferences, desires, and behaviors, reflecting how they experience and express sexual attraction.
Summary: Sexuality involves a person’s sexual orientation, desires, and how they express sexual attraction.
Issues with Survey Research on Human Sexuality (Self-Report Data):
Psychology Definition: Issues with self-report data in survey research on human sexuality include response biases, such as social desirability bias, where participants may not disclose accurate information due to fear of judgment or societal norms.
Summary: Problems with self-report surveys on sexuality include people giving socially desirable answers instead of their true feelings or behaviors.
Issues with Observational Research on Human Sexuality:
Psychology Definition: Issues with observational research on human sexuality include ethical concerns, such as privacy and consent, and the challenge of capturing authentic behavior in a natural setting.
Summary: Problems with observational studies on sexuality involve ethical issues like privacy and difficulties in observing genuine behavior.
Sex Determination:
Psychology Definition: Sex determination is the process by which the sex of an individual is established, typically based on the combination of sex chromosomes inherited from the parents.
Summary: Sex determination is how an individual’s sex is established, usually based on the sex chromosomes they inherit.
Sperm:
Psychology Definition: Sperm are male reproductive cells that carry genetic information and combine with an egg to form a zygote during fertilization.
Summary: Sperm are the male cells that combine with an egg to create a new organism.
Egg:
Psychology Definition: Eggs are female reproductive cells containing genetic material that combine with sperm to form a zygote during fertilization.
Summary: Eggs are female cells that unite with sperm to create a new organism.
23rd Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes that determine an individual's sex: XX for females and XY for males.
Summary: The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines if someone is male (XY) or female (XX).
X and Y Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes that determine biological sex; females typically have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
Summary: X and Y chromosomes determine biological sex: females have XX, and males have XY.
Zygote:
Psychology Definition: A zygote is the cell formed by the union of sperm and egg, marking the beginning of embryonic development.
Summary: A zygote is the first cell of a new organism formed by the joining of sperm and egg.
XX: Female:
Psychology Definition: XX refers to the pair of sex chromosomes typically found in females, contributing to the development of female primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: XX chromosomes are usually found in females and help develop female traits.
XY: Male:
Psychology Definition: XY refers to the pair of sex chromosomes typically found in males, which contribute to the development of male primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: XY chromosomes are usually found in males and help develop male traits.
Gonads:
Psychology Definition: Gonads are the primary reproductive organs—testes in males and ovaries in females—that produce gametes and hormones.
Summary: Gonads are the organs that produce reproductive cells and hormones: testes in males and ovaries in females.
Testes:
Psychology Definition: Testes are the male gonads responsible for producing sperm and male sex hormones, such as testosterone.
Summary: Testes are male organs that produce sperm and hormones like testosterone.
Ovaries:
Psychology Definition: Ovaries are the female gonads responsible for producing eggs and female sex hormones, such as estrogens.
Summary: Ovaries are female organs that produce eggs and hormones like estrogens.
Androgens (Testosterone):
Psychology Definition: Androgens, including testosterone, are male sex hormones that play a crucial role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive tissues.
Summary: Androgens, like testosterone, are hormones that help develop male traits and reproductive organs.
Estrogens:
Psychology Definition: Estrogens are female sex hormones responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Summary: Estrogens are hormones that help develop female traits and regulate menstruation.
Testosterone’s Role in Genitalia Development:
Psychology Definition: Testosterone is crucial for the development of male genitalia and secondary sexual characteristics during fetal development and puberty.
Summary: Testosterone helps in developing male genitalia and secondary sexual traits during fetal development and puberty.
Mullerian Ducts:
Psychology Definition: Mullerian ducts are the precursors to female reproductive structures, which develop into the uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper part of the vagina if not suppressed by male hormones.
Summary: Mullerian ducts develop into female reproductive organs unless male hormones inhibit them.
Wolffian Ducts:
Psychology Definition: Wolffian ducts are the precursors to male reproductive structures, which develop into the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts if testosterone is present.
Summary: Wolffian ducts develop into male reproductive organs when influenced by testosterone.
Primary Sexual Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Primary sexual characteristics are the anatomical structures directly involved in reproduction, such as the penis, testes, vagina, and ovaries.
Summary: Primary sexual characteristics are the reproductive organs themselves, like the penis and vagina.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that emerge during puberty and distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development in females and facial hair in males.
Summary: Secondary sexual characteristics are features like body hair and breast development that appear during puberty.
Spermarche:
Psychology Definition: Spermarche is the term for a boy's first ejaculation, marking the onset of sperm production and sexual maturity.
Summary: Spermarche is when boys experience their first ejaculation, indicating sexual maturity.
Menarche:
Psychology Definition: Menarche is the term for a girl's first menstrual period, marking the onset of menstruation and reproductive capability.
Summary: Menarche is the first menstrual period in girls, signifying the start of their reproductive cycle.
Differences in Sexual Development (DSD):
Psychology Definition: Differences in Sexual Development (DSD) are a group of congenital conditions where the development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex is atypical.
Summary: DSD refers to conditions where a person’s sexual development is different from the typical male or female patterns.
Turner’s Syndrome (XO):
Psychology Definition: Turner’s Syndrome is a genetic condition in females characterized by the absence of one of the two X chromosomes (XO), leading to developmental and physical abnormalities.
Summary: Turner’s Syndrome occurs when females have only one X chromosome, resulting in certain physical and developmental issues.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY):
Psychology Definition: Klinefelter’s Syndrome is a genetic condition in males where an extra X chromosome is present (XXY), leading to physical and cognitive differences.
Summary: Klinefelter’s Syndrome is when males have an extra X chromosome, which can cause physical and cognitive differences.
XXX:
Psychology Definition: XXX syndrome, or Triple X syndrome, is a genetic condition in females characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXX), which may cause developmental delays and other health issues.
Summary: XXX syndrome is when females have an extra X chromosome, which can lead to some developmental and health challenges.
XYY:
Psychology Definition: XYY syndrome is a genetic condition in males where an extra Y chromosome is present (XYY), which can lead to taller stature and, in some cases, learning difficulties.
Summary: XYY syndrome occurs when males have an extra Y chromosome, potentially causing increased height and learning difficulties.
Intersexual:
Psychology Definition: Intersexuality refers to a condition where an individual has physical sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female bodies.
Summary: Intersexuality is when a person has physical traits that are not clearly male or female.
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome:
Psychology Definition: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) is a genetic condition where individuals with XY chromosomes do not respond to androgens (male hormones), leading to the development of female physical traits despite having male chromosomes.
Summary: AIS is when people with male chromosomes don’t respond to male hormones, resulting in female physical characteristics.
Androgenized Female:
Psychology Definition: An androgenized female is a female who has been exposed to higher levels of androgens (male hormones) in utero, leading to more typically male physical traits.
Summary: An androgenized female is a girl who develops male-like physical traits due to high levels of male hormones before birth.
5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency:
Psychology Definition: 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency is a condition where the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase, which converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT), is deficient, affecting genital development in males.
Summary: 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency is a condition where a key enzyme for developing male genitalia is missing, impacting genital development in boys.
Gender:
Psychology Definition: Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural attributes, roles, and identities associated with being male or female, which may not necessarily align with biological sex.
Summary: Gender is about the roles and identities society assigns to being male or female, which can differ from biological sex.
Gender Identity:
Psychology Definition: Gender identity is a person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may be male, female, a blend of both, or neither, and may not necessarily match their biological sex.
Summary: Gender identity is how individuals perceive and identify their own gender, which might not match their biological sex.
Non-Binary:
Psychology Definition: Non-binary is a gender identity that does not fit within the traditional categories of male or female and may encompass a range of gender experiences outside the binary system.
Summary: Non-binary refers to gender identities that do not fit strictly into male or female categories.
Gender Roles:
Psychology Definition: Gender roles are societal expectations and norms for behavior and responsibilities typically associated with being male or female.
Summary: Gender roles are the expected behaviors and duties assigned to people based on whether they are male or female.
Gender Typing:
Psychology Definition: Gender typing is the process by which individuals learn and adopt the behaviors, interests, and traits considered appropriate for their gender by society.
Summary: Gender typing is when people learn and follow behaviors and interests deemed appropriate for their gender by society.
Observational Learning:
Psychology Definition: Observational learning is a process where individuals acquire new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others.
Summary: Observational learning occurs when people learn new behaviors by watching and copying others.
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement and Punishment):
Psychology Definition: Operant conditioning is a learning process where behaviors are shaped by rewards (reinforcement) or consequences (punishment), influencing the likelihood of those behaviors being repeated.
Summary: Operant conditioning involves learning behaviors through rewards or consequences, which affects whether those behaviors will happen again.
Gender Schemas:
Psychology Definition: Gender schemas are cognitive frameworks that organize and interpret information related to gender, influencing how individuals perceive and react to gender-related behaviors.
Summary: Gender schemas are mental frameworks that help people understand and react to gender-related behaviors and roles.
Prenatal Testosterone Exposure:
Psychology Definition: Prenatal testosterone exposure refers to the influence of testosterone levels in the womb on the development of gender-related traits and behaviors in the offspring.
Summary: Prenatal testosterone exposure affects the development of gender traits and behaviors before birth.
Gender Role Stereotypes:
Psychology Definition: Gender role stereotypes are widely held beliefs and expectations about how males and females should behave based on their gender.
Summary: Gender role stereotypes are common beliefs about how people of each gender are expected to act.
Androgyny:
Psychology Definition: Androgyny is a gender expression characterized by a combination of both masculine and feminine traits, often challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes.
Summary: Androgyny involves showing both masculine and feminine traits, blending traditional gender roles.
Transgender:
Psychology Definition: Transgender describes individuals whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
Summary: Transgender people have a gender identity that doesn’t match the sex they were assigned when they were born.
Transsexual:
Psychology Definition: Transsexual is a term for individuals who seek or have undergone medical procedures, such as hormone therapy or surgery, to align their physical body with their gender identity.
Summary: Transsexual refers to people who change their physical body to match their gender identity through medical treatments.
Gender Affirmation:
Psychology Definition: Gender affirmation involves actions and processes that support and validate an individual’s gender identity, which may include social, medical, or legal changes.
Summary: Gender affirmation is about supporting and confirming a person's gender identity through social, medical, or legal means.
Brain Size and Structure:
Psychology Definition: Brain size and structure refer to the physical dimensions and organization of the brain, which can influence cognitive functions and behaviors.
Summary: Brain size and structure involve the physical characteristics of the brain that affect how we think and behave.
Social Cognition:
Psychology Definition: Social cognition is the process of understanding and interpreting social information, including how we perceive, think about, and respond to others.
Summary: Social cognition is how we understand and interpret social information about people and interactions.
Mental Rotation:
Psychology Definition: Mental rotation is the ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space mentally, which is important for tasks involving spatial reasoning.
Summary: Mental rotation involves imagining and rotating objects in your mind to solve spatial problems.
Environmental Factors:
Psychology Definition: Environmental factors are external influences such as culture, upbringing, and life experiences that affect an individual's development and behavior.
Summary: Environmental factors are outside influences like culture and experiences that shape how we develop and behave.
Aggression:
Psychology Definition: Aggression is behavior intended to harm or intimidate others, which can be physical, verbal, or relational.
Summary: Aggression is behavior meant to hurt or threaten others, including physical and verbal actions.
Relational Aggression:
Psychology Definition: Relational aggression is a type of aggression that harms others through damaging relationships or social status, such as spreading rumors or exclusion.
Summary: Relational aggression involves harming others by hurting their relationships or social standing, like gossiping or excluding them.
Gender Similarity Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The gender similarity hypothesis proposes that males and females are more alike than different in most psychological variables, such as cognitive abilities and personality traits.
Summary: The gender similarity hypothesis suggests that men and women are more similar than different in most psychological traits.
Social Dominance:
Psychology Definition: Social dominance refers to the hierarchical ranking of individuals in social groups, where certain individuals or groups hold more power and influence over others.
Summary: Social dominance is about how people are ranked in a group, with some having more power and influence than others.
Connectedness:
Psychology Definition: Connectedness refers to the sense of being close and having meaningful relationships with others, which contributes to emotional well-being and social support.
Summary: Connectedness is feeling close to and having meaningful relationships with others, which supports emotional well-being.
Kin-Keeping:
Psychology Definition: Kin-keeping involves maintaining family connections and traditions, often including organizing family gatherings and keeping in touch with relatives.
Summary: Kin-keeping is about managing family relationships and traditions, like organizing events and staying in contact with relatives.
Masters and Johnson, Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution, Refractory Period
Psychology Definition: Masters and Johnson identified four stages of the human sexual response cycle: excitement (initial arousal), plateau (intensified arousal), orgasm (peak of sexual pleasure), and resolution (body returns to normal state), with a refractory period for men (time during which they cannot achieve another erection).
Summary: Masters and Johnson’s model includes stages of arousal, peak pleasure, and return to normal, with men needing rest before starting again.
Sexual Orientation, Continuum, Heterosexual, Homosexual, Bisexual, Asexual
Psychology Definition: Sexual orientation refers to an individual's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others and can be viewed on a continuum, including heterosexual (opposite sex), homosexual (same sex), bisexual (both sexes), and asexual (no sexual attraction).
Summary: Sexual orientation is who you’re attracted to, whether it’s the opposite sex, same sex, both, or no one.
Females Display More Flexibility, Developmental Trend, Potential Causes of Sexual Orientation
Psychology Definition: Females often show more fluidity in their sexual orientation over time. Potential causes of sexual orientation include genetic differences, prenatal exposure to androgens, differences in the hypothalamus, having more older brothers, prenatal exposure to nicotine, and childhood experiences.
Summary: Women’s attraction can change more easily, and sexual orientation may be influenced by genes, hormones, brain differences, number of older brothers, prenatal nicotine, and childhood.
Biases Against Non-Heterosexuals
Psychology Definition: Individuals who are not heterosexual often face social biases and discrimination.
Summary: Non-heterosexual people may face unfair treatment and prejudice.
Male-Female Differences in Preferences for Partners’ Attributes, Evolutionary Explanations for this Sex Difference
Psychology Definition: Evolutionary theory suggests that males and females have different preferences for partner attributes due to reproductive strategies; males prefer youth and physical attractiveness (indicators of fertility), while females prefer resources and stability (indicators of ability to support offspring).
Summary: Evolutionary theory says men look for youth and beauty, and women look for resources and stability because of how they reproduce.
Number of Potential Offspring, Paternity Uncertainty, Minimal Invested Effort
Psychology Definition: Males can potentially father many offspring and face paternity uncertainty, which may lead them to seek multiple partners with minimal invested effort. Females invest more in each child and thus seek partners who can provide resources.
Summary: Men can have many kids and might not always be sure they're the father, so they might look for many partners. Women invest more in each child and want partners who can support them.
Sexual Trends (Married Compared to Non-Married, Gender Differences, Age Trends, Frequency of Sexual Behaviors), Sexting, Sex Education
Psychology Definition: Typical sexual behavior varies by marital status, gender, and age, with married individuals often having more frequent sex, gender differences in sexual activity, and changes in sexual behavior with age. Modern trends include sexting and the impact of comprehensive sex education.
Summary: Normal sexual behavior changes with marriage, gender, and age. Sexting is common now, and sex education helps people understand sex.
Sexual Dysfunctions, Problems with Desire or Arousal
Psychology Definition: Sexual dysfunctions include problems with sexual desire or arousal, such as erectile disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder.
Summary: Sexual dysfunctions can include issues with wanting sex or getting aroused.
Problems with Orgasm
Psychology Definition: Issues related to orgasm include female orgasmic disorder, premature ejaculation, and delayed orgasm.
Summary: Problems with orgasm include not being able to orgasm, finishing too quickly, or taking too long.
Problems with Pain
Psychology Definition: Sexual pain disorders include genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder, causing pain during intercourse.
Summary: Some people experience pain during sex, which can be a disorder.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), Bacterial: Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia
Psychology Definition: Bacterial STIs include syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, which can be treated with antibiotics.
Summary: Bacterial STIs, like syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, can be cured with medicine.
Viral: Herpes, Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Genital Herpes
Psychology Definition: Viral STIs include herpes and HPV, which are chronic conditions that can be managed but not cured.
Summary: Viral STIs, like herpes and HPV, can’t be cured but can be treated.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Psychology Definition: HIV attacks the immune system and can lead to AIDS, a life-threatening condition where the immune system is severely weakened.
Summary: HIV damages the immune system and can cause AIDS, making it hard to fight off illnesses.
Sexual Scripts, Paraphilia, Fetishism, Pedophilia
Psychology Definition: Sexual scripts are societal norms about sexual behavior. Paraphilias are atypical sexual interests, such as fetishism (intense focus on non-genital body parts or objects) and pedophilia (sexual attraction to children).
Summary: Sexual scripts are cultural rules for sex. Paraphilias are unusual sexual interests, like being attracted to objects or children.
Potential Short Answer Question on the Exam
Part A Explain how exposure to high or low levels of prenatal testosterone can influence one's sexual orientation (who one is primarily attracted to). Be sure to explain what happens when an embryo/fetus is exposed to high levels of testosterone and what happens when an embryo/fetus is exposed to exposed to low levels of testosterone. If the sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of exposure to high or low levels of prenatal testosterone please state that in your answer. Part B Explain how the number of previous male pregnancies the mother had can influence one's sexual orientation (who one is primarily attracted to). If the sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of the number of previous male pregnancies the mother had, please state that in your answer. Each explanation is worth one point. I AM ONLY INTERESTED IN HOW THESE ISSUES INFLUENCE SEXUAL ORIENTATION (not how they may influence other factors). This question is worth two points.
High Levels of Prenatal Testosterone:
Embryo/Fetus Impact: When an embryo or fetus, regardless of its sex, is exposed to high levels of prenatal testosterone, it can influence the development of male-typical traits. For a male fetus, high levels of testosterone are typical and support the development of a heterosexual orientation (attraction to females). For a female fetus, unusually high levels of prenatal testosterone can increase the likelihood of a homosexual orientation (attraction to females).
Low Levels of Prenatal Testosterone:
Embryo/Fetus Impact: When an embryo or fetus, regardless of its sex, is exposed to low levels of prenatal testosterone, it can influence the development of female-typical traits. For a male fetus, unusually low levels of prenatal testosterone can increase the likelihood of a homosexual orientation (attraction to males). For a female fetus, low levels of testosterone are typical and support the development of a heterosexual orientation (attraction to males).
Summary: High prenatal testosterone levels can lead to male-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in males and homosexual in females), while low prenatal testosterone levels can lead to female-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in females and homosexual in males). The sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of testosterone levels on sexual orientation.
Fraternal Birth Order Effect:
Explanation: The fraternal birth order effect refers to the phenomenon where the number of older biological brothers a male has increases the likelihood of him having a homosexual orientation. This effect is specific to males and does not impact females.
Mechanism: It is hypothesized that with each male pregnancy, the mother's immune system may develop antibodies that affect the brain development of subsequent male fetuses, influencing their sexual orientation.
Summary: The more older biological brothers a male has, the higher the likelihood that he will have a homosexual orientation due to maternal immune response. This effect is specific to males and does not apply to females.
Part A: High levels of prenatal testosterone typically result in male-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in males, homosexual in females), while low levels result in female-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in females, homosexual in males). The sex of the embryo/fetus influences these outcomes.
Part B: The likelihood of a male having a homosexual orientation increases with the number of older biological brothers he has, due to maternal immune responses. This effect is specific to males.
4o
Personality
Psychology Definition: Personality refers to the unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals.
Summary: Personality is what makes you, you – the way you act, think, and feel.
Temperament
Psychology Definition: Temperament refers to the basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life.
Summary: Temperament is your natural way of reacting to things, like being shy or outgoing.
Psychoanalytic
Psychology Definition: The psychoanalytic perspective, founded by Freud, emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.
Summary: Psychoanalytic theory says our deep, hidden thoughts and early life shape who we are.
Behavioral
Psychology Definition: The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interactions with the environment.
Summary: Behavioral theory looks at how we learn to act from what happens around us.
Humanistic
Psychology Definition: The humanistic perspective emphasizes individual growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization.
Summary: Humanistic theory believes everyone can grow and be the best version of themselves.
Social-Cognitive
Psychology Definition: The social-cognitive perspective highlights the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, and situational influences on behavior.
Summary: Social-cognitive theory says we learn by watching others and that our actions are influenced by our thoughts and the situation.
Biological
Psychology Definition: The biological perspective examines the role of genetic and physiological processes in personality development.
Summary: Biological theory looks at how our genes and brain affect who we are.
Trait
Psychology Definition: The trait perspective focuses on identifying and measuring the specific traits that make up human personality.
Summary: Trait theory describes people based on their individual characteristics, like being kind or adventurous.
Unconscious
Psychology Definition: The unconscious mind contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but influence behavior.
Summary: The unconscious is like a hidden part of your mind that affects how you act without you knowing.
Preconscious
Psychology Definition: The preconscious mind includes thoughts and feelings that are not currently in awareness but can be easily brought to consciousness.
Summary: The preconscious is like a memory you can easily remember if you try.
Conscious
Psychology Definition: The conscious mind contains thoughts and feelings that we are currently aware of.
Summary: The conscious is what you're thinking and feeling right now.
Id
Psychology Definition: The id is the part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic urges and desires.
Summary: The id is the part of you that wants things right now, like food or fun.
Pleasure Principle
Psychology Definition: The pleasure principle is the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.
Summary: The pleasure principle is wanting things right away without waiting.
Ego
Psychology Definition: The ego operates on the reality principle, mediating between the desires of the id and the constraints of reality.
Summary: The ego helps you deal with reality and makes sure you don’t act on every impulse.
Reality Principle
Psychology Definition: The reality principle is the guiding principle of the ego that seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets can be found.
Summary: The reality principle makes you wait for the right time to get what you want.
Superego
Psychology Definition: The superego incorporates the moral standards and values of society and serves as an internal judge of right and wrong.
Summary: The superego is like your conscience, telling you what’s right and wrong.
Repression
Psychology Definition: Repression involves unconsciously blocking unpleasant emotions, impulses, or memories from conscious awareness.
Summary: Repression is like hiding bad memories deep in your mind so you don't think about them.
Rationalization
Psychology Definition: Rationalization involves creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
Summary: Rationalization is making excuses for something you did that you feel bad about.
Displacement
Psychology Definition: Displacement involves shifting emotional impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.
Summary: Displacement is taking out your feelings on something or someone else who isn't the cause.
Projection
Psychology Definition: Projection involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.
Summary: Projection is thinking other people have the same bad thoughts you do.
Reaction Formation
Psychology Definition: Reaction formation involves behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings.
Summary: Reaction formation is acting the opposite of how you really feel.
Denial
Psychology Definition: Denial involves refusing to accept reality or facts, blocking external events from awareness.
Summary: Denial is not believing something bad is happening.
Regression
Psychology Definition: Regression involves reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
Summary: Regression is acting like a younger child when you're stressed.
Sublimation
Psychology Definition: Sublimation involves channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
Summary: Sublimation is turning bad feelings into something good, like art or sports.
Identification
Psychology Definition: Identification involves adopting the characteristics of someone else to cope with anxiety.
Summary: Identification is copying someone you admire to feel better about yourself.
Oral
Psychology Definition: The oral stage is the first stage in Freud’s psychosexual development, focusing on pleasure derived from the mouth.
Summary: The oral stage is when babies find pleasure in sucking and biting.
Anal
Psychology Definition: The anal stage focuses on pleasure derived from control over bowel movements.
Summary: The anal stage is when toddlers learn to control their potty training.
Phallic
Psychology Definition: The phallic stage focuses on pleasure derived from the genital area and the resolution of the Oedipus complex.
Summary: The phallic stage is when kids start noticing differences between boys and girls.
Oedipus Complex
Psychology Definition: The Oedipus complex is a boy’s desire for his mother and rivalry with his father.
Summary: The Oedipus complex is when a boy feels like he loves his mom and competes with his dad.
Electra Complex (this term was coined by Jung)
Psychology Definition: The Electra complex is a girl’s desire for her father and rivalry with her mother.
Summary: The Electra complex is when a girl feels like she loves her dad and competes with her mom.
Castration Anxiety
Psychology Definition: Castration anxiety is a boy’s fear of losing his genital organs as punishment for his desires for his mother.
Summary: Castration anxiety is a boy’s fear that his dad will punish him by taking away his genitals.
Penis Envy
Psychology Definition: Penis envy is a girl’s sense of loss and jealousy over not having a penis.
Summary: Penis envy is when a girl feels upset because she doesn’t have a penis.
Identification
Psychology Definition: Identification is when a child adopts the values and behaviors of the same-sex parent.
Summary: Identification is when kids copy their mom or dad to be like them.
Latency
Psychology Definition: The latency stage is a period of relative calm between more turbulent stages where sexual impulses are repressed.
Summary: The latency stage is a time when kids focus on school and friends, not on sex.
Genital
Psychology Definition: The genital stage is the final stage of psychosexual development, focusing on mature sexual intimacy.
Summary: The genital stage is when teenagers develop adult sexual feelings.
Fixation
Psychology Definition: Fixation occurs when an individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage due to unresolved conflicts.
Summary: Fixation is getting stuck in a certain stage because you didn’t solve its problems.
Adler, Individual Psychology, Inferiority Complex
Psychology Definition: Adler’s individual psychology focuses on the drive to overcome feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority.
Summary: Adler thought people try to feel better than others to make up for feeling less than.
Jung, Personal Unconscious, Collective Unconscious, Archetypes
Psychology Definition: Jung’s theory includes the personal unconscious (similar to Freud's unconscious) and the collective unconscious, which contains universal memories and archetypes shared among humans.
Summary: Jung believed we all share deep memories and symbols, like the hero or the mother.
Horney, Rejected Penis Envy
Psychology Definition: Horney rejected Freud’s concept of penis envy and argued that women’s feelings of inferiority stem from social disadvantages, not anatomy.
Summary: Horney thought women feel inferior because of society, not because they don’t have a penis.
Critique of Freud’s Theory
Non-representative Sample
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories were based on a small, non-representative group of people, making them less generalizable.
Summary: Freud's ideas came from a few people, so they might not apply to everyone.
Too Focused on Sexual Issues
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories overly emphasize sexual development and impulses.
Summary: Freud's theories talk too much about sex.
Non-testable
Psychology Definition: Many of Freud’s concepts are difficult to scientifically test and measure.
Summary: Freud’s ideas can’t be easily proven or disproven.
After the Fact Explanations
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories often explain behaviors after they occur, rather than predicting them.
Summary: Freud’s ideas explain things after they happen, not before.
Applicability Toward Women
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories are often criticized for being biased against women.
Summary: Freud's ideas aren’t fair to women.
Development Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Assumed
Psychology Definition: Freud believed personality development was largely completed by early childhood, which has been disputed.
Summary: Freud thought we were mostly shaped by childhood, but that’s not entirely true.
Positives – Clinical Utility, Focus on the Unconscious, Broad Theory
Psychology Definition: Despite criticisms, Freud’s theories have clinical utility, focus on the unconscious mind, and offer a comprehensive view of personality.
Summary: Freud’s ideas are still useful in therapy, focus on deep thoughts, and cover a lot.
Maslow, Characteristics of Self-Actualizers
Psychology Definition: Maslow’s self-actualizers are individuals who have realized their full potential and possess qualities like creativity, spontaneity, and a sense of purpose.
Summary: Maslow’s self-actualizers are people who’ve become the best they can be.
Rogers, Self-Concept, Ideal Self, Actual Self, Congruency and Incongruency, Unconditional Positive Regard
Psychology Definition: Rogers believed in the importance of the self-concept (how we see ourselves), the ideal self (how we wish to be), and achieving congruence between the two. Unconditional positive regard is accepting and valuing a person without conditions.
Summary: Rogers thought we need to match who we are with who we want to be and feel loved no matter what.
Critiques of Humanistic Approach
Pros: Positive View of People, Influence on Positive Psychology
Psychology Definition: The humanistic approach offers a positive outlook on human nature and has influenced the field of positive psychology.
Summary: The humanistic approach sees the good in people and has inspired positive psychology.
Cons: Concepts are Subjective and Vague, Hard to Assess
Psychology Definition: Critics argue that humanistic concepts are often too subjective, vague, and difficult to measure scientifically.
Summary: The humanistic approach can be unclear and hard to measure.
Rotter, Locus of Control, Internal Locus of Control, External Locus of Control, Expectancies
Psychology Definition: Rotter’s locus of control refers to whether people believe they control their own fate (internal) or are controlled by external factors (external).
Summary: Rotter’s locus of control is about whether you think you control your life or if others do.
Bandura, Social-Cognitive Perspective, Self-Efficacy, Reciprocal Determinism
Psychology Definition: Bandura’s social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction between individuals and their environment, focusing on self-efficacy (belief in one’s abilities) and reciprocal determinism (the mutual influence of person, behavior, and environment).
Summary: Bandura’s theory says we learn by watching others and our environment affects us as we affect it.
Trait Theories
Psychology Definition: Trait theories focus on describing personality characteristics rather than explaining how they develop.
Summary: Trait theories list traits that make up our personality.
Factor Analysis
Psychology Definition: Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits.
Summary: Factor analysis finds which traits go together.
Eysenck’s Introversion-Extroversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism
Psychology Definition: Eysenck’s model includes dimensions of introversion-extroversion (sociability), neuroticism (emotional stability), and psychoticism (aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility).
Summary: Eysenck’s traits measure how outgoing, emotional, and tough you are.
The Big 5/Five Factor Model: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N.)
Psychology Definition: The Big Five model identifies five key dimensions of personality: openness to new experiences, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Summary: The Big Five traits describe people based on five main characteristics: being open, careful, outgoing, kind, and emotionally stable.
Heritability Estimates of the Big 5
Psychology Definition: Heritability estimates refer to the proportion of variation in personality traits that can be attributed to genetic factors.
Summary: Heritability of the Big 5 looks at how much our genes affect our personality.
Mischel and the Person-Situation Controversy
Psychology Definition: Mischel argued that behavior is influenced more by situational factors than by stable personality traits.
Summary: Mischel thought that situations, not just traits, determine how we act.
Big 5 Traits May Not Apply to Non-Industrial Cultures
Psychology Definition: Research suggests that the Big Five traits may not fully capture personality variations in non-industrialized cultures.
Summary: The Big Five traits might not fit people from all cultures.
Reliability
Psychology Definition: Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure; a reliable test produces similar results under consistent conditions.
Summary: Reliability is making sure a test gives the same results every time.
Test-Retest Reliability
Psychology Definition: Test-retest reliability measures the stability of test scores over time.
Summary: Test-retest reliability checks if you get the same score when you take the test again.
Interrater Reliability
Psychology Definition: Interrater reliability measures the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior.
Summary: Interrater reliability is when different people score a test the same way.
Predictive Validity
Psychology Definition: Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts future behavior or performance.
Summary: Predictive validity is how well a test predicts what will happen in the future.
Projective Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that may reveal aspects of an individual’s personality.
Summary: Projective tests show unclear images to see what people think about them, revealing their personality.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Psychology Definition: The Rorschach inkblot test involves interpreting inkblots to uncover underlying thoughts and feelings.
Summary: The Rorschach test asks what you see in inkblots to understand your mind.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Psychology Definition: The TAT uses pictures of ambiguous situations to elicit stories that reveal personality traits and motives.
Summary: The TAT asks you to tell stories about pictures to show your personality.
Tests Concepts Indirectly, Less Reactance
Psychology Definition: Projective tests may reduce reactance (resistance) because they don't directly ask about personal issues.
Summary: Projective tests can reveal more because they don’t ask directly about sensitive topics.
Issues Concerning the Reliability and Validity of Projective Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests often face criticisms for their lack of reliability and validity.
Summary: Projective tests can be unreliable and may not measure what they claim.
Time to Complete the Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests can be time-consuming to administer and interpret.
Summary: Projective tests take a long time to do and analyze.
Objective Personality Tests
Psychology Definition: Objective personality tests use structured, standardized questions to assess various aspects of personality.
Summary: Objective tests use set questions to measure personality.
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
Psychology Definition: The MMPI is a widely used objective test that assesses a range of psychological conditions and personality attributes.
Summary: The MMPI is a test that checks for different psychological traits and issues.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Psychology Definition: The MBTI categorizes individuals into personality types based on preferences in four areas: extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving.
Summary: The MBTI sorts people into personality types based on how they prefer to act and think.
Standardized, High Reliability, High Validity
Psychology Definition: Objective tests are standardized and generally exhibit high reliability and validity.
Summary: Objective tests are reliable, valid, and fair because they follow a set procedure.
People May Lie, Social Desirability Bias
Psychology Definition: People might lie on objective tests or answer in a way they think is socially acceptable.
Summary: People might not always tell the truth on objective tests, wanting to look good.
Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam
Provide at least (a) two criticisms/weaknesses and (b) one strength of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. At least five weaknesses and three strengths were discussed in class or in the text. Each answer provided is worth one point (three points maximum). You may want to provide answers for more than three concepts to increase the likelihood that you earn full credit.
Criticisms/Weaknesses:
Overemphasis on Sexuality:
Explanation: Freud's theory places excessive emphasis on sexual drives and conflicts as the primary forces behind human behavior and development.
Example: Concepts like the Oedipus complex suggest that sexual desires towards parents are central to personality development, which many modern psychologists find overly simplistic and not representative of the full range of human motivations.
Personality is Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Claimed:
Explanation: Freud believed that personality development is largely completed by the end of early childhood, but contemporary research shows that personality can change and develop throughout the lifespan.
Example: Significant changes in personality traits can occur during adolescence and adulthood, influenced by life experiences and environmental factors.
Impossible to Disprove:
Explanation: Many of Freud's concepts, such as the unconscious mind and repressed memories, are not easily testable or falsifiable, making it difficult to scientifically validate his theories.
Example: The idea that unconscious motives drive behavior cannot be empirically measured, leading to criticism that Freud's theory lacks scientific rigor.
Strengths:
Breadth:
Explanation: Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding a wide range of human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.
Example: His theory addresses various aspects of development, personality, and mental disorders, offering a broad perspective on human psychology.
Focus on Unconscious Motivation:
Explanation: Freud highlighted the importance of unconscious processes in influencing behavior, which was a groundbreaking concept in psychology.
Example: The recognition that unconscious motives and conflicts can affect conscious thoughts and actions has been integrated into many modern psychological theories and therapies.
Clinical Utility:
Explanation: Despite its criticisms, Freud's theory has been influential in the field of psychotherapy and has led to the development of various therapeutic techniques.
Example: Techniques such as free association and dream analysis are still used in some forms of therapy today to explore unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts.
Criticisms/Weaknesses of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory:
Overemphasis on Sexuality
Explanation: Freud's theory places excessive emphasis on sexual drives and conflicts as the primary forces behind human behavior and development.
Example: Concepts like the Oedipus complex suggest that sexual desires towards parents are central to personality development, which many modern psychologists find overly simplistic and not representative of the full range of human motivations.
Personality is Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Claimed
Explanation: Freud believed that personality development is largely completed by the end of early childhood, but contemporary research shows that personality can change and develop throughout the lifespan.
Example: Significant changes in personality traits can occur during adolescence and adulthood, influenced by life experiences and environmental factors.
Impossible to Disprove
Explanation: Many of Freud's concepts, such as the unconscious mind and repressed memories, are not easily testable or falsifiable, making it difficult to scientifically validate his theories.
Example: The idea that unconscious motives drive behavior cannot be empirically measured, leading to criticism that Freud's theory lacks scientific rigor.
Strengths of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory:
Breadth
Explanation: Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding a wide range of human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.
Example: His theory addresses various aspects of development, personality, and mental disorders, offering a broad perspective on human psychology.
Focus on Unconscious Motivation
Explanation: Freud highlighted the importance of unconscious processes in influencing behavior, which was a groundbreaking concept in psychology.
Example: The recognition that unconscious motives and conflicts can affect conscious thoughts and actions has been integrated into many modern psychological theories and therapies.
Clinical Utility
Explanation: Despite its criticisms, Freud's theory has been influential in the field of psychotherapy and has led to the development of various therapeutic techniques.
Example: Techniques such as free association and dream analysis are still used in some forms of therapy today to explore unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts.
Define and give examples of the following defense mechanisms: (a) repression, (b) regression, (c) projection, (d) displacement, (e) rationalization, and (f) reaction formation. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ½ point. If I ask this question on the test, I will only ask about three of the terms.
Defense Mechanisms:
(a) Repression:
Definition: Unconsciously blocking unpleasant or threatening thoughts from awareness.
Example: Forgetting a traumatic event.
(b) Regression:
Definition: Reverting to an earlier developmental stage under stress.
Example: Thumb-sucking in a stressed teenager.
(c) Projection:
Definition: Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts to others.
Example: Believing a colleague dislikes you when you dislike them.
(d) Displacement:
Definition: Redirecting emotions to a safer substitute.
Example: Taking out work frustration on family.
(e) Rationalization:
Definition: Creating logical excuses for irrational behavior.
Example: Blaming test difficulty for poor performance.
(f) Reaction Formation:
Definition: Behaving oppositely to one's true feelings.
Example: Acting homophobic to cover up one's own insecurities.
LO 1 Identify the factors that influence the likelihood of someone conforming.
Conformity:
Psychology Definition: Conformity is the act of changing one’s behavior or beliefs to align with the norms or expectations of a group or society.
Summary: Conformity is when you change how you act or think to fit in with a group.
Norms:
Psychology Definition: Norms are the shared rules or standards that dictate acceptable behavior within a group or society.
Summary: Norms are the guidelines for how people are expected to behave in a group.
Asch’s Conformity Study:
Psychology Definition: Asch’s conformity study, conducted by Solomon Asch, investigated the extent to which individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect answer to a simple question, revealing the impact of group pressure on conformity.
Summary: Asch’s study showed how people might agree with a group’s wrong answer just to fit in.
Normative Social Influence:
Psychology Definition: Normative social influence occurs when individuals conform to gain approval or avoid disapproval from others, even if they do not personally agree with the group.
Summary: Normative social influence is when you conform to fit in and be liked by others, even if you don’t agree with them.
Informative Social Influence:
Psychology Definition: Informative social influence happens when individuals conform because they believe others have accurate information or knowledge, and they want to make correct decisions.
Summary: Informative social influence is when you follow others because you think they know what’s right or accurate.
Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect Study:
Psychology Definition: Sherif’s autokinetic effect study investigated how people’s perceptions of movement in a dark room changed over time as they conformed to the group’s estimates, demonstrating the influence of group norms on individual judgments.
Summary: Sherif’s study showed how people’s guesses about movement in a dark room changed to match what the group said.
Why Conform:
Feel Insecure:
Psychology Definition: Individuals may conform because they feel unsure of themselves and seek guidance from the group to make decisions or judgments.
Summary: People often conform because they feel uncertain and look to the group for guidance.
Group Is Large:
Psychology Definition: Conformity tends to increase as the size of the group grows, as larger groups create more pressure to conform.
Summary: People are more likely to conform if the group is bigger.
Group Is Unanimous:
Psychology Definition: Conformity is more likely when the entire group is in agreement, as unanimity creates strong social pressure to align with
LO 2 Describe obedience and explain how Stanley Milgram studied it.
Obedience:
Psychology Definition: Obedience is the act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure, often without questioning the validity or morality of the directive.
Summary: Obedience is when people follow orders from someone in charge, even if they might not agree with them.
Milgram’s Obedience Studies:
Psychology Definition: Milgram’s obedience studies, conducted by Stanley Milgram, investigated the extent to which individuals would follow orders from an authority figure to administer electric shocks to another person, even when it conflicted with their personal conscience.
Summary: Milgram’s studies showed how people might follow orders from an authority to do something harmful, like giving electric shocks, even if they don’t want to.
What Affects Obedience:
Legitimacy of the Authority Figure:
Psychology Definition: The legitimacy of the authority figure refers to how likely people are to obey instructions based on how authoritative and credible the figure appears to be.
Summary: People are more likely to obey if they think the person giving orders is important or has authority.
Physical Proximity of the Learner and Teacher:
Psychology Definition: The physical proximity of the learner and teacher affects obedience, with increased proximity making it more difficult for the teacher to administer harmful actions to the learner.
Summary: People are less likely to obey harmful orders if the person they are affecting is close to them.
Physical Proximity of the Experimenter (Authority Figure) and Teacher:
Psychology Definition: The physical proximity of the experimenter to the teacher influences obedience, with closer proximity often increasing the likelihood that the teacher will follow the experimenter’s instructions.
Summary: Teachers are more likely to obey commands if the authority figure is physically close to them.
Get to Pick Levels of Shock Administered:
Psychology Definition: When individuals are given the option to choose the level of shock administered, they tend to administer lower levels of shock compared to when given direct orders, which can reduce obedience.
Summary: If people can choose how strong the shocks are, they usually give less severe shocks than if they are just told to administer them.
LO 3 Recognize the circumstances that influence the occurrence of the bystander effect.
Bystander Intervention:
Psychology Definition: Bystander intervention involves three key steps: noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, and assuming personal responsibility to act.
Summary: Bystander intervention is when someone notices, realizes it’s an emergency, and decides to help.
Bystander Effect:
Psychology Definition: The bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when other people are present, due to the diffusion of responsibility.
Summary: The bystander effect is when people are less likely to help in emergencies if there are others around who could also help.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
Psychology Definition: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group assume that someone else will take action, leading to a reduced likelihood of any one person intervening.
Summary: Diffusion of responsibility is when people think someone else will take action, so they don’t do anything themselves.
Informative Influence:
Psychology Definition: Informative influence is when individuals conform to others' actions or beliefs because they believe those others have accurate information and are providing guidance on how to act.
Summary: Informative influence happens when people follow others because they think those others know what’s right or accurate.
Normative Influence:
Psychology Definition: Normative influence is when individuals conform to fit in with the group or gain approval, even if they don't necessarily agree with the group’s actions or beliefs.
Summary: Normative influence is when people conform to fit in with others or gain their approval, even if they don’t really agree.
LO 4 Define stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination and recognize how group affiliation influences the development of stereotypes and prejudice.
Prejudice:
Psychology Definition: Prejudice is a negative or positive attitude or feeling towards a person or group based on their perceived membership in a particular social category.
Summary: Prejudice is when you have a biased attitude towards someone based on their group membership, whether positive or negative.
Stereotypes:
Psychology Definition: Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or assumptions about a group of people, often oversimplified and not based on accurate information.
Summary: Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about a group of people, assuming everyone in the group is the same.
Discrimination:
Psychology Definition: Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group, which can manifest in actions or behaviors.
Summary: Discrimination is when people are treated unfairly because of their group membership.
Social Categorization:
Psychology Definition: Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, or age, which helps simplify and organize social information.
Summary: Social categorization is how we group people based on traits like race or gender to make sense of social interactions.
Ingroups:
Psychology Definition: Ingroups are groups to which individuals perceive themselves as belonging, often characterized by shared interests or identities.
Summary: Ingroups are the groups people feel they belong to and share common interests with.
Outgroups:
Psychology Definition: Outgroups are groups that individuals perceive as distinct from their own ingroup, often leading to biases and stereotypes.
Summary: Outgroups are groups that are seen as different from one’s own group.
Ingroup Bias:
Psychology Definition: Ingroup bias is the tendency to favor and give preferential treatment to members of one’s own group over those in outgroups.
Summary: Ingroup bias is when you prefer and treat people in your own group better than those in other groups.
Outgroup Homogeneity:
Psychology Definition: Outgroup homogeneity is the perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than they actually are, often leading to generalizations and stereotypes.
Summary: Outgroup homogeneity is thinking that everyone in a different group is the same, even though they are not.
Ethnocentrism:
Psychology Definition: Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own cultural or ethnic group is superior to others, often resulting in viewing other cultures through a biased lens.
Summary: Ethnocentrism is thinking your own culture is better than others and judging other cultures based on your own.
Implicit Prejudices:
Psychology Definition: Implicit prejudices are unconscious biases or attitudes towards individuals or groups that influence behavior and judgments without the individual’s awareness.
Summary: Implicit prejudices are hidden biases that affect how we feel and act towards others without us realizing it.
Social Identity Theory:
Psychology Definition: Social identity theory posits that individuals derive a sense of self and self-worth from their membership in social groups, which influences their attitudes and behaviors towards others.
Summary: Social identity theory is the idea that people’s self-esteem and behaviors are influenced by the social groups they belong to.
Just World Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The just world hypothesis is the belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve, leading to the assumption that bad things happen to those who are deemed deserving of them.
Summary: The just world hypothesis is thinking that people get what they deserve, so bad things happening to others are seen as their fault.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis/Scapegoat Theory:
Psychology Definition: The frustration-aggression hypothesis, or scapegoat theory, suggests that frustration from unmet goals can lead to aggression, which is often directed at a convenient or less threatening target (scapegoat).
Summary: This theory says that frustration can cause aggression, which may be directed at an easier or less threatening target, called a scapegoat.
Stereotype Threat:
Psychology Definition: Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s own group, which can negatively affect performance and behavior.
Summary: Stereotype threat is when worrying about confirming negative stereotypes affects how well people perform or behave.
Zimbardo’s Prison Study:
Psychology Definition: Zimbardo’s prison study, conducted by Philip Zimbardo, explored how people conform to social roles and how situational factors can lead to extreme behavior, using a simulated prison environment.
Summary: Zimbardo’s prison study showed how people can act drastically differently when assigned to certain social roles, like guards and prisoners in a fake prison.
Social Roles:
Psychology Definition: Social roles are expected behaviors and responsibilities associated with a particular position or status within a group or society.
Summary: Social roles are the expected actions and duties for someone in a specific position or group.
LO 5 Identify the three major factors contributing to interpersonal attraction.
Proximity:
Psychology Definition: Proximity refers to the physical or geographical closeness between individuals, which increases the likelihood of interaction and relationship formation.
Summary: Proximity is about how being close to someone physically can make it more likely for a relationship to develop.
Mere Exposure Effect:
Psychology Definition: The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things they are frequently exposed to.
Summary: The mere exposure effect is when people start liking things more simply because they see or encounter them often.
Speed Dating:
Psychology Definition: Speed dating is a social event where individuals participate in a series of short, timed interactions with potential partners to quickly assess mutual interest.
Summary: Speed dating is a way to meet many potential partners in a short time by having brief conversations with each.
Physical Attraction:
Psychology Definition: Physical attraction is the degree to which an individual's physical appearance elicits a desire for a romantic or sexual relationship.
Summary: Physical attraction is when someone’s looks make them appealing for a romantic or sexual relationship.
What Is Attractive:
Psychology Definition: Attractiveness can be influenced by cultural standards, symmetry, and average features, with beauty often being defined by societal norms and preferences.
Summary: Attractiveness is shaped by cultural standards, symmetry, and features that are close to the average, as well as societal norms.
Halo Effect:
Psychology Definition: The halo effect is a cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the assumption of other positive traits in a person.
Summary: The halo effect happens when one good quality of a person makes us think they have other good qualities too.
Similarity:
Psychology Definition: Similarity is the extent to which individuals share common attributes, interests, or values, which can enhance interpersonal attraction and relationship satisfaction.
Summary: Similarity is when people who share common interests or values are more likely to be attracted to each other and have satisfying relationships.
Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love:
Psychology Definition: Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love posits that love is composed of three components: commitment, passion, and intimacy. Different combinations of these components result in different types of love.
Summary: Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love says that love includes commitment, passion, and intimacy, and different blends of these create various types of love.
Commitment:
Psychology Definition: Commitment is the decision to maintain a long-term relationship with a partner and to invest in that relationship's future.
Summary: Commitment is the dedication to stay in a relationship and work on it over time.
Passion:
Psychology Definition: Passion refers to the intense emotional and physical attraction one feels towards a partner, often associated with romance and desire.
Summary: Passion is the strong feelings of attraction and desire you have for someone.
Intimacy:
Psychology Definition: Intimacy involves emotional closeness, connection, and the sharing of personal thoughts and feelings with a partner.
Summary: Intimacy is about being emotionally close and sharing personal thoughts and feelings with someone.
Romantic Love:
Psychology Definition: Romantic love typically includes high levels of passion and intimacy, often characterized by intense emotional connection and desire.
Summary: Romantic love involves strong feelings of passion and emotional closeness with someone.
Companionate Love:
Psychology Definition: Companionate love is characterized by deep affection, commitment, and intimacy, but typically with lower levels of passion compared to romantic love.
Summary: Companionate love involves deep affection and commitment but less intense passion compared to romantic love.
LO 6 Describe how having others around affect people. (This Learning Objective was added.)
Social Facilitation:
Psychology Definition: Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform differently in the presence of others compared to when they are alone, often improving performance on easy tasks but impairing it on hard tasks. This effect can be due to increased arousal or evaluation apprehension.
Summary: Social facilitation means people might do better on easy tasks and worse on hard tasks when others are watching, due to increased arousal or concern about being judged.
Social Loafing:
Psychology Definition: Social loafing is the phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone. The effect decreases if each person's contributions can be identified.
Summary: Social loafing happens when people work less hard in a group than alone, but this reduces if everyone's work is visible.
Cultural Differences in Social Loafing:
Psychology Definition: Cultural differences in social loafing refer to variations in the tendency to reduce effort in group settings based on cultural values, with collectivist cultures typically showing less social loafing compared to individualist cultures.
Summary: Different cultures vary in social loafing, with people from collectivist cultures usually loafing less than those from individualist cultures.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
Psychology Definition: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less personal responsibility to act or intervene because the responsibility is shared among all members.
Summary: Diffusion of responsibility is when people in a group feel less accountable for taking action because they think others will do it.
Free Ride:
Psychology Definition: Free riding is a form of social loafing where individuals benefit from the group’s efforts without contributing their fair share of work.
Summary: Free riding is when people take advantage of the group's work without doing their part.
Deindividuation:
Psychology Definition: Deindividuation is a psychological state characterized by a loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, often leading to behavior that is atypical for the individual.
Summary: Deindividuation happens when people lose their sense of self in a group and behave in ways they normally wouldn’t.
Risky Shift:
Psychology Definition: Risky shift refers to the tendency for group decisions to be riskier than the average decisions made by individuals within the group.
Summary: Risky shift is when groups make riskier choices than individuals would on their own.
Group Polarization:
Psychology Definition: Group polarization is the phenomenon where group discussions lead to more extreme positions or decisions than the initial individual preferences of group members.
Summary: Group polarization is when discussions in a group lead to more extreme opinions or decisions than what individuals initially thought.
Groupthink:
Psychology Definition: Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony and conformity in a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes.
Summary: Groupthink occurs when a group’s desire for agreement leads to poor or irrational decisions.
Learning Objectives 7 and 8 below are from the content from Chapter 13a - I only will test on the cognitive dissonance and the content we covered in lecture
LO 7 Describe several common attributional errors.
Just-World Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get what they deserve in life, leading individuals to perceive that justice is always served and that bad things happen to people due to their own actions.
Summary: The just-world hypothesis is the idea that people believe everyone gets what they deserve, so bad things happening to others are seen as their own fault.
Self-Serving Bias:
Psychology Definition: Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one’s own actions and abilities while blaming negative outcomes on external factors or other people.
Summary: Self-serving bias is when people take credit for their successes but blame failures on outside factors.
LO 8 Define attitudes and recognize factors associated with persuasion.
Cognitive Dissonance:
Psychology Definition: Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs.
Summary: Cognitive dissonance is the stress felt when someone's beliefs or actions don't match, causing them to seek ways to reduce the conflict.
Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam
Explain the factors that affect the likelihood that an individual will conform to a group’s position. That is, what about the individual, the group or the situation might affect the likelihood the person conforms. For each explanation you must report whether their concept increases or decreases the likelihood that the person conforms. If you think hair length plays a role, you will have to state whether having long or short hair makes the person more likely to conform (Note hair length is not a factor). At least seven factors were discussed in lecture or in the text. Each factor explained in worth ¾ of a point (a minimum of four need to be provided for full credit). This question is worth three points.
Explain how each of the following factors affected the likelihood that participants obeyed the experimenter in Milgram’s studies (a) how close the teacher was to the learner, (b) how close the teacher was to the experimenter, and (c) whether the teacher could pick how much shock to deliver to the learner. Each answer is worth one point. (This question is from content that was only out of the book and an online assignment). This question is worth three points.
[a]have no idea what this means tbh
Developmental Psychology:
Psychology Definition: Studies how people grow and change from infancy through adulthood.
Summary: Helps us understand how kids and adults change and learn.
Maturation:
Psychology Definition: Biological process of becoming fully grown and developed.
Summary: About our bodies naturally growing and becoming adults.
Physical Development:
Psychology Definition: Changes in body like growing taller and developing motor skills.
Summary: How our bodies change and become stronger.
Cognitive Development:
Psychology Definition: Growth in thinking, learning new skills, problem-solving.
Summary: How our brains learn and understand as we grow.
Socioemotional Development:
Psychology Definition: Learning to manage emotions, interact with others, form relationships.
Summary: About handling feelings, making friends, and getting along.
Biopsychosocial Perspective:
Psychology Definition: Considers biological, psychological, and social factors in development and behavior.
Summary: Helps understand how our bodies, minds, and environment shape us.
Nature-Nurture:
Psychology Definition: Debate about whether genes (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture) have a greater influence on development and behavior.
Summary: Nature-nurture explores how our genes and experiences shape who we are and how we behave.
Continuity and Stages:
Psychology Definition: Views on development debating whether changes happen gradually and continuously or in distinct stages.
Summary: Continuity and stages explore whether growth occurs smoothly over time or in distinct steps.
Critical Period:
Psychology Definition: Specific time early in life when exposure to certain experiences is necessary for normal development.
Summary: Critical period refers to a window of time when certain experiences are crucial for proper development.
Stability and Change:
Psychology Definition: Debate on whether our traits and behaviors remain consistent over time (stability) or change as we age and encounter new experiences (change).
Summary: Stability and change explore whether aspects of our personality and behavior stay the same or evolve throughout life.
Longitudinal Method:
Psychology Definition: The longitudinal method involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period to observe changes and developments over time.
Summary: This method allows researchers to track changes in the same people and see if earlier differences predict later differences.
Pros:
Can assess change over time.
Can see if differences at one time point predict differences at another time point.
Cons:
Requires significant time and cost to run the study.
Selective attrition (dropouts) may occur, potentially biasing results.
Practice effects may influence results as participants become familiar with the study.
Cohort effects might impact findings due to characteristics specific to the group being studied.
Cross-Sectional Method:
Psychology Definition: The cross-sectional method involves studying different groups of people at a single point in time to compare various age groups or cohorts.
Summary: This method provides a snapshot of different age groups at one time but cannot track changes within individuals.
Pros:
Faster and cheaper than longitudinal studies.
No issues with dropouts since data is collected from different individuals at the same time.
No practice effects because participants only complete assessments once.
Cons:
Susceptible to cohort effects where differences between age groups may be due to factors other than development.
Cannot assess developmental change within individuals over time.
Cross-Sequential Method:
Psychology Definition: The cross-sequential method combines elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches by studying multiple cohorts over time.
Summary: This method allows researchers to assess both developmental changes and cohort effects by tracking different age groups over time.
Strengths:
Combines strengths of both longitudinal and cross-sectional methods.
Can assess for cohort effects, distinguishing between age-related changes and group-specific differences.
23 Pairs of Chromosomes (46 Strands):
Psychology Definition: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, totaling 46 strands, which contain genetic information.
Summary: These chromosomes carry the genetic blueprint for human development and function.
DNA:
Psychology Definition: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the growth, development, and functioning of living organisms.
Summary: DNA is the genetic material that provides the instructions for creating and maintaining an organism.
Genes:
Psychology Definition: Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for making proteins and determining specific traits and characteristics.
Summary: Genes are the units of heredity that influence various traits and functions in an organism.
Sex Chromosomes (23rd Pair) XX Female, XY Male:
Psychology Definition: The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines an individual's sex, with XX indicating female and XY indicating male.
Summary: The sex chromosomes determine whether a person is male or female.
Monozygotic Twins (Identical Twins):
Psychology Definition: Monozygotic twins are formed from a single fertilized egg that splits into two embryos, resulting in genetically identical siblings.
Summary: Identical twins come from one egg and share nearly the same genetic makeup.
Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal Twins):
Psychology Definition: Dizygotic twins are developed from two separate fertilized eggs and share about 50% of their genetic material, similar to regular siblings.
Summary: Fraternal twins come from two different eggs and are genetically similar like regular siblings.
Twin Studies:
Psychology Definition: Twin studies compare the similarities and differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twins to understand the influence of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.
Summary: Twin studies help researchers explore how much of our traits are due to genetics versus environment by comparing identical and fraternal twins.
Adoption Studies:
Psychology Definition: Adoption studies involve comparing adopted children to their biological and adoptive families to assess the influence of genetics and environment on development.
Summary: Adoption studies help determine the roles of genetics and environment by looking at how adopted children resemble their biological and adoptive families.
Gametes:
Psychology Definition: Gametes are reproductive cells (sperm in males and eggs in females) that carry genetic information and combine during fertilization to form a new organism.
Summary: Gametes are the cells involved in reproduction, merging to create a zygote.
Germinal Period:
Psychology Definition: The germinal period is the first two weeks of prenatal development, starting from conception and ending with the implantation of the zygote in the uterine wall.
Summary: The germinal period includes the early stages of development, from fertilization to implantation.
Conception:
Psychology Definition: Conception is the process when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
Summary: Conception is the moment when sperm and egg unite to begin pregnancy.
Zygote:
Psychology Definition: A zygote is a single cell formed by the union of sperm and egg, containing the full set of chromosomes needed for the development of a new organism.
Summary: The zygote is the initial cell formed at conception that will develop into an embryo and then a fetus.
Implantation:
Psychology Definition: Implantation is the process by which the developing embryo attaches to the lining of the uterus, where it will continue to grow and develop.
Summary: Implantation occurs when the embryo embeds itself in the uterine wall to establish pregnancy.
Embryo:
Psychology Definition: An embryo is the developing organism from about two weeks after conception until the end of the eighth week of pregnancy, during which major organs and systems begin to form.
Summary: The embryo stage involves the early development of vital organs and structures.
Fetus:
Psychology Definition: A fetus is the developing organism from the ninth week of pregnancy until birth, characterized by continued growth and maturation of organs and systems.
Summary: The fetus undergoes significant growth and refinement of organs from the ninth week to birth.
Placenta:
Psychology Definition: The placenta is an organ that forms during pregnancy, providing nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and removing waste products from the fetal blood.
Summary: The placenta connects the fetus to the mother, enabling nutrient and waste exchange.
Umbilical Cord:
Psychology Definition: The umbilical cord is a tube-like structure connecting the fetus to the placenta, containing blood vessels that facilitate the transfer of nutrients and oxygen.
Summary: The umbilical cord links the fetus to the placenta, crucial for nutrient and waste exchange.
Amniotic Sac:
Psychology Definition: The amniotic sac is a fluid-filled membrane that surrounds and cushions the developing fetus, providing a protective environment.
Summary: The amniotic sac encases the fetus in fluid, protecting and cushioning it during pregnancy.
Teratogens:
Psychology Definition: Teratogens are substances or factors that can cause malformations or developmental issues in a fetus during pregnancy.
Summary: Teratogens are harmful agents that can negatively impact fetal development.
Sensitive Periods:
Psychology Definition: Sensitive periods are specific times during development when an organism is particularly receptive to certain types of experiences or environmental influences.
Summary: Sensitive periods are times when certain developmental experiences are especially important.
Principle of Dose-Response:
Psychology Definition: The principle of dose-response refers to the relationship between the amount of exposure to a teratogen and the severity of its effects on prenatal development.
Summary: The dose-response principle explains how the level of exposure to harmful agents affects developmental outcomes.
Sleeper Effects:
Psychology Definition: Sleeper effects are delayed or latent effects of early experiences or exposures that may not become apparent until later in development.
Summary: Sleeper effects are developmental issues that show up later, even though the initial exposure happened earlier.
Effects of Alcohol Exposure:
Psychology Definition: Alcohol exposure during pregnancy can lead to a range of developmental and behavioral problems in the fetus, known collectively as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD).
Summary: Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can result in various developmental problems in the baby.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS):
Psychology Definition: Fetal alcohol syndrome is a severe form of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders characterized by distinctive facial features, growth deficiencies, and central nervous system impairments resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure.
Summary: Fetal alcohol syndrome is a serious condition caused by drinking alcohol during pregnancy, leading to physical and developmental problems.
Reflexes:
Psychology Definition: Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli that are present from birth and help protect and support the infant's development.
Summary: Reflexes are automatic reactions to stimuli that help infants respond to their environment and support their survival.
Rooting Reflex:
Psychology Definition: The rooting reflex is an innate response in newborns where they turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek or mouth is touched, helping them locate the nipple for feeding.
Summary: The rooting reflex helps infants find the nipple to begin feeding by turning their head and opening their mouth when their cheek is touched.
Sucking Reflex:
Psychology Definition: The sucking reflex is an automatic, instinctive action where infants suck on objects placed in their mouth, which is crucial for feeding and nourishment.
Summary: The sucking reflex involves infants automatically sucking on objects in their mouth, which is important for feeding.
Axon Growth:
Psychology Definition: Axon growth refers to the process by which nerve cells (neurons) extend their long, slender projections (axons) to establish connections with other neurons or muscles.
Summary: Axon growth is how neurons develop long projections to connect with other cells, essential for forming the nervous system's communication network.
Synaptic Pruning:
Psychology Definition: Synaptic pruning is the process during brain development where excess or unused synaptic connections between neurons are eliminated to increase the efficiency of neural communication.
Summary: Synaptic pruning involves removing extra or unused neural connections to make the brain's communication more efficient.
Piaget:
Psychology Definition: Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children's thinking evolves through distinct stages.
Summary: Piaget studied how children's thinking changes as they grow, proposing stages of cognitive development.
Schemas:
Psychology Definition: Schemas are mental structures or frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information based on past experiences.
Summary: Schemas are like mental templates that help us understand and organize new information.
Cognitive Equilibrium:
Psychology Definition: Cognitive equilibrium is the state in which a person's cognitive schemas are balanced and able to effectively process new information without confusion.
Summary: Cognitive equilibrium is when our mental frameworks are stable and able to handle new information smoothly.
Assimilation:
Psychology Definition: Assimilation is the process of incorporating new information into existing cognitive schemas without changing the schemas.
Summary: Assimilation involves adding new information to our existing mental frameworks without altering them.
Disequilibrium:
Psychology Definition: Disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be easily integrated into existing schemas, leading to cognitive discomfort and the need for adaptation.
Summary: Disequilibrium happens when new information doesn't fit with what we already know, causing confusion.
Accommodation:
Psychology Definition: Accommodation is the process of modifying existing cognitive schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that does not fit into current schemas.
Summary: Accommodation involves changing our mental frameworks or creating new ones to include new information.
Sensorimotor:
Psychology Definition: The sensorimotor stage is the first stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory (from birth to about 2 years old), characterized by learning through sensory experiences and motor actions.
Summary: The sensorimotor stage is when infants learn by interacting with their surroundings through their senses and actions.
Object Permanence:
Psychology Definition: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Summary: Object permanence is the realization that things still exist even when we can't see them.
Preoperational:
Psychology Definition: The preoperational stage is Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (ages 2 to 7), where children begin to use language and symbols but lack logical operations.
Summary: In the preoperational stage, children start using language and symbols but have trouble with logical thinking.
Egocentrism:
Psychology Definition: Egocentrism in Piaget’s theory refers to the inability of preoperational children to see things from perspectives other than their own.
Summary: Egocentrism is when kids can’t understand things from viewpoints other than their own.
Conservation:
Psychology Definition: Conservation is the understanding that certain properties of objects (like volume or mass) remain the same despite changes in their form or appearance.
Summary: Conservation is the idea that objects stay the same even if their shape changes.
Concrete Operations:
Psychology Definition: The concrete operational stage is Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 11), where children gain the ability to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation.
Summary: In the concrete operational stage, children can think logically about real events and understand concepts like conservation.
Formal Operations:
Psychology Definition: The formal operational stage is Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development (from around age 12 onwards), characterized by the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.
Summary: The formal operational stage is when individuals start to think abstractly and solve problems logically.
Vygotsky:
Psychology Definition: Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning.
Summary: Vygotsky focused on how social interactions and culture influence learning and cognitive development.
Scaffolding:
Psychology Definition: Scaffolding is the support provided by an educator or more knowledgeable person to help a learner achieve a higher level of understanding or skill.
Summary: Scaffolding is the help given to learners to support their progress to more advanced understanding or skills.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
Psychology Definition: The zone of proximal development is the range of tasks that a learner can perform with the help of a more knowledgeable person but cannot yet perform independently.
Summary: The ZPD is the gap between what learners can do on their own and what they can achieve with assistance.
Temperament:
Psychology Definition: Temperament refers to the inherent traits and characteristics that influence how a person reacts to their environment and experiences, such as their mood and adaptability.
Summary: Temperament is the natural way people respond to the world, affecting their mood and reactions.
Easy Babies:
Psychology Definition: Easy babies are infants with a generally positive mood, regular sleeping and eating patterns, and adaptability to new situations.
Summary: Easy babies are cheerful, adaptable, and have predictable routines.
Difficult Babies:
Psychology Definition: Difficult babies are infants who exhibit intense reactions, irregular sleep and eating patterns, and difficulty adapting to new experiences.
Summary: Difficult babies are often fussy, have irregular routines, and struggle with new situations.
Slow to Warm Up Babies:
Psychology Definition: Slow to warm up babies are infants who may be initially cautious or withdrawn in new situations but gradually become more comfortable over time.
Summary: Slow to warm up babies are shy at first but become more comfortable with time.
Harlow’s Monkey Studies:
Psychology Definition: Harlow’s monkey studies involved experiments with infant rhesus monkeys to explore attachment, demonstrating that monkeys preferred comfort and security from a soft surrogate mother over a wire one providing food.
Summary: Harlow’s studies showed that baby monkeys preferred comfort from a soft mother figure over just food, highlighting the importance of emotional attachment.
Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Attachment is the emotional bond formed between an infant and their caregiver, which influences the child’s development and future relationships.
Summary: Attachment is the strong emotional connection between a baby and their caregiver that impacts the child’s growth and relationships.
Secure Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Secure attachment is characterized by a child feeling safe and confident when their caregiver is present and seeking comfort and reassurance from them when needed.
Summary: Secure attachment means a child feels safe with their caregiver and turns to them for comfort.
Avoidant Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Avoidant attachment is when a child avoids or ignores their caregiver and shows little emotional response to their presence or absence.
Summary: Avoidant attachment involves a child seeming distant and indifferent to their caregiver’s presence.
Ambivalent (or Anxious-Resistant) Attachment:
Psychology Definition: Ambivalent attachment is when a child is overly dependent on their caregiver and shows intense distress when the caregiver leaves, yet may not be easily comforted upon their return.
Summary: Ambivalent attachment involves a child being very upset when their caregiver leaves and hard to soothe when they return.
Theory of Mind:
Psychology Definition: Theory of Mind refers to the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own.
Summary: Theory of Mind is understanding that other people have their own thoughts and feelings.
False Belief Tasks:
Psychology Definition: False belief tasks are used to assess a child’s understanding that other people can hold beliefs about the world that are different from their own and may be incorrect.
Summary: False belief tasks test if a child can recognize that others may have beliefs that are different from reality.
Autism:
Psychology Definition: Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), is a developmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
Summary: Autism is a condition that affects how a person interacts, communicates, and behaves, often involving repetitive actions.
Erikson:
Psychology Definition: Erik Erikson was a developmental psychologist known for his theory of psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages of development across the lifespan, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.
Summary: Erikson developed a theory describing eight stages of human development, each involving a key conflict that shapes our personality.
Trust vs. Mistrust:
Psychology Definition: Trust vs. Mistrust is the first stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from birth to about 18 months, where infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust based on their caregivers’ responsiveness and reliability.
Summary: In this stage, infants learn to trust or mistrust others based on how well their needs are met.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt:
Psychology Definition: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt is the second stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring from about 18 months to 3 years, where toddlers learn to assert their independence and develop a sense of self-control.
Summary: Toddlers develop a sense of independence or feel shame and doubt depending on how they are supported in exploring their autonomy.
Initiative vs. Guilt:
Psychology Definition: Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from about 3 to 6 years, where children begin to take initiative and engage in activities, balancing their ambitions with guilt over potential failures or mistakes.
Summary: Preschoolers learn to take initiative in their activities or feel guilt if they think they’ve done something wrong.
Industry vs. Inferiority:
Psychology Definition: Industry vs. Inferiority is the fourth stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from about 6 years to puberty, where children develop a sense of competence and achievement or feel inferior compared to their peers.
Summary: School-aged children either develop confidence in their skills or feel inferior when comparing themselves to others.
Identity vs. Role Confusion:
Psychology Definition: Identity vs. Role Confusion is the fifth stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring during adolescence, where individuals explore and establish their personal identity and values, or experience confusion about their role in society.
Summary: Adolescents work on forming their personal identity or feel confused about their role in the world.
Intimacy vs. Isolation:
Psychology Definition: Intimacy vs. Isolation is the sixth stage in Erikson's theory, occurring in early adulthood, where individuals seek to form deep, meaningful relationships or risk feeling isolated and lonely.
Summary: Young adults either form close, intimate relationships or face isolation and loneliness.
Generativity vs. Stagnation:
Psychology Definition: Generativity vs. Stagnation is the seventh stage in Erikson’s theory, occurring in middle adulthood, where individuals strive to contribute to society and support the next generation, or feel a sense of stagnation and self-absorption.
Summary: Adults focus on contributing to society and guiding the next generation, or feel stuck and self-centered.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair:
Psychology Definition: Ego Integrity vs. Despair is the eighth and final stage in Erikson's theory, occurring in late adulthood, where individuals reflect on their life and either achieve a sense of fulfillment and integrity or experience regret and despair.
Summary: Older adults reflect on their life and either feel fulfilled and at peace or regretful and despairing.
Puberty:
Psychology Definition: Puberty is the period of physical and hormonal changes during adolescence that leads to sexual maturity and the development of secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: Puberty is the time when teens undergo physical and hormonal changes that result in sexual maturity.
Primary Sex Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Primary sex characteristics are the physical traits directly involved in reproduction, such as the development of reproductive organs like ovaries and testes.
Summary: Primary sex characteristics include the organs essential for reproduction, like ovaries in females and testes in males.
Secondary Sex Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Secondary sex characteristics are physical traits that develop during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development and body hair.
Summary: Secondary sex characteristics are features like body hair and breast development that appear during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.
Menarche:
Psychology Definition: Menarche is the term for a girl’s first menstrual period, marking the onset of menstruation and reproductive capability.
Summary: Menarche is the first occurrence of menstruation in girls, signaling the start of their reproductive cycle.
Spermarche:
Psychology Definition: Spermarche is the term for a boy’s first ejaculation, indicating the beginning of sperm production and sexual maturity.
Summary: Spermarche is the first time boys ejaculate, marking the start of their ability to produce sperm.
Predictors of Menarche Timing:
Psychology Definition: Predictors of menarche timing include genetic factors, nutritional status, body weight, and overall health, which influence when a girl will start menstruating.
Summary: Factors like genetics, nutrition, and health affect when a girl will experience her first menstrual period.
Teenage Brain Development: Limbic System Development:
Psychology Definition: The limbic system is a part of the brain involved in emotion and reward processing, which matures during adolescence and influences behavior and emotional responses.
Summary: The limbic system, which handles emotions and rewards, develops during the teenage years, affecting emotional reactions and behavior.
Teenage Brain Development: Frontal Lobe Maturation:
Psychology Definition: The frontal lobe is responsible for higher-order cognitive functions such as decision-making, planning, and impulse control, and it matures more slowly during adolescence.
Summary: The frontal lobe, which controls thinking and decision-making, matures gradually during the teenage years, impacting judgment and impulse control.
Define teratogens and explain each of the following teratogen-related concepts (a) sensitive period, (b) the principle of dose response, and (c) sleeper effects. The definition of teratogens and each explanation is each worth ¾ of a point. This question is worth three points.
Explain what occurs in each of Piaget’s cognitive development stages (a) sensorimotor, (b) preoperational, (c) concrete operations, and (d) formal operations. Each explanation is worth ¾ of a point. This question is worth three points.
Sex:
Psychology Definition: Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, including chromosomes, hormone levels, and reproductive/sexual anatomy.
Summary: Sex is about the biological differences between males and females, such as chromosomes and reproductive organs.
Sex Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: Sex chromosomes are the chromosomes that determine an individual's sex, with XX typically indicating female and XY indicating male.
Summary: Sex chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes that decide whether someone is male or female.
Gender:
Psychology Definition: Gender refers to the social and psychological attributes, roles, and expectations associated with being male or female, which may not necessarily align with biological sex.
Summary: Gender is about the social roles and identities associated with being male or female, which can be different from biological sex.
Sexuality:
Psychology Definition: Sexuality encompasses an individual's sexual orientation, preferences, desires, and behaviors, reflecting how they experience and express sexual attraction.
Summary: Sexuality involves a person’s sexual orientation, desires, and how they express sexual attraction.
Issues with Survey Research on Human Sexuality (Self-Report Data):
Psychology Definition: Issues with self-report data in survey research on human sexuality include response biases, such as social desirability bias, where participants may not disclose accurate information due to fear of judgment or societal norms.
Summary: Problems with self-report surveys on sexuality include people giving socially desirable answers instead of their true feelings or behaviors.
Issues with Observational Research on Human Sexuality:
Psychology Definition: Issues with observational research on human sexuality include ethical concerns, such as privacy and consent, and the challenge of capturing authentic behavior in a natural setting.
Summary: Problems with observational studies on sexuality involve ethical issues like privacy and difficulties in observing genuine behavior.
Sex Determination:
Psychology Definition: Sex determination is the process by which the sex of an individual is established, typically based on the combination of sex chromosomes inherited from the parents.
Summary: Sex determination is how an individual’s sex is established, usually based on the sex chromosomes they inherit.
Sperm:
Psychology Definition: Sperm are male reproductive cells that carry genetic information and combine with an egg to form a zygote during fertilization.
Summary: Sperm are the male cells that combine with an egg to create a new organism.
Egg:
Psychology Definition: Eggs are female reproductive cells containing genetic material that combine with sperm to form a zygote during fertilization.
Summary: Eggs are female cells that unite with sperm to create a new organism.
23rd Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: The 23rd pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes that determine an individual's sex: XX for females and XY for males.
Summary: The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines if someone is male (XY) or female (XX).
X and Y Chromosomes:
Psychology Definition: X and Y chromosomes are the sex chromosomes that determine biological sex; females typically have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
Summary: X and Y chromosomes determine biological sex: females have XX, and males have XY.
Zygote:
Psychology Definition: A zygote is the cell formed by the union of sperm and egg, marking the beginning of embryonic development.
Summary: A zygote is the first cell of a new organism formed by the joining of sperm and egg.
XX: Female:
Psychology Definition: XX refers to the pair of sex chromosomes typically found in females, contributing to the development of female primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: XX chromosomes are usually found in females and help develop female traits.
XY: Male:
Psychology Definition: XY refers to the pair of sex chromosomes typically found in males, which contribute to the development of male primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Summary: XY chromosomes are usually found in males and help develop male traits.
Gonads:
Psychology Definition: Gonads are the primary reproductive organs—testes in males and ovaries in females—that produce gametes and hormones.
Summary: Gonads are the organs that produce reproductive cells and hormones: testes in males and ovaries in females.
Testes:
Psychology Definition: Testes are the male gonads responsible for producing sperm and male sex hormones, such as testosterone.
Summary: Testes are male organs that produce sperm and hormones like testosterone.
Ovaries:
Psychology Definition: Ovaries are the female gonads responsible for producing eggs and female sex hormones, such as estrogens.
Summary: Ovaries are female organs that produce eggs and hormones like estrogens.
Androgens (Testosterone):
Psychology Definition: Androgens, including testosterone, are male sex hormones that play a crucial role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive tissues.
Summary: Androgens, like testosterone, are hormones that help develop male traits and reproductive organs.
Estrogens:
Psychology Definition: Estrogens are female sex hormones responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Summary: Estrogens are hormones that help develop female traits and regulate menstruation.
Testosterone’s Role in Genitalia Development:
Psychology Definition: Testosterone is crucial for the development of male genitalia and secondary sexual characteristics during fetal development and puberty.
Summary: Testosterone helps in developing male genitalia and secondary sexual traits during fetal development and puberty.
Mullerian Ducts:
Psychology Definition: Mullerian ducts are the precursors to female reproductive structures, which develop into the uterus, fallopian tubes, and upper part of the vagina if not suppressed by male hormones.
Summary: Mullerian ducts develop into female reproductive organs unless male hormones inhibit them.
Wolffian Ducts:
Psychology Definition: Wolffian ducts are the precursors to male reproductive structures, which develop into the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts if testosterone is present.
Summary: Wolffian ducts develop into male reproductive organs when influenced by testosterone.
Primary Sexual Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Primary sexual characteristics are the anatomical structures directly involved in reproduction, such as the penis, testes, vagina, and ovaries.
Summary: Primary sexual characteristics are the reproductive organs themselves, like the penis and vagina.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics:
Psychology Definition: Secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits that emerge during puberty and distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development in females and facial hair in males.
Summary: Secondary sexual characteristics are features like body hair and breast development that appear during puberty.
Spermarche:
Psychology Definition: Spermarche is the term for a boy's first ejaculation, marking the onset of sperm production and sexual maturity.
Summary: Spermarche is when boys experience their first ejaculation, indicating sexual maturity.
Menarche:
Psychology Definition: Menarche is the term for a girl's first menstrual period, marking the onset of menstruation and reproductive capability.
Summary: Menarche is the first menstrual period in girls, signifying the start of their reproductive cycle.
Differences in Sexual Development (DSD):
Psychology Definition: Differences in Sexual Development (DSD) are a group of congenital conditions where the development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex is atypical.
Summary: DSD refers to conditions where a person’s sexual development is different from the typical male or female patterns.
Turner’s Syndrome (XO):
Psychology Definition: Turner’s Syndrome is a genetic condition in females characterized by the absence of one of the two X chromosomes (XO), leading to developmental and physical abnormalities.
Summary: Turner’s Syndrome occurs when females have only one X chromosome, resulting in certain physical and developmental issues.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY):
Psychology Definition: Klinefelter’s Syndrome is a genetic condition in males where an extra X chromosome is present (XXY), leading to physical and cognitive differences.
Summary: Klinefelter’s Syndrome is when males have an extra X chromosome, which can cause physical and cognitive differences.
XXX:
Psychology Definition: XXX syndrome, or Triple X syndrome, is a genetic condition in females characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXX), which may cause developmental delays and other health issues.
Summary: XXX syndrome is when females have an extra X chromosome, which can lead to some developmental and health challenges.
XYY:
Psychology Definition: XYY syndrome is a genetic condition in males where an extra Y chromosome is present (XYY), which can lead to taller stature and, in some cases, learning difficulties.
Summary: XYY syndrome occurs when males have an extra Y chromosome, potentially causing increased height and learning difficulties.
Intersexual:
Psychology Definition: Intersexuality refers to a condition where an individual has physical sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female bodies.
Summary: Intersexuality is when a person has physical traits that are not clearly male or female.
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome:
Psychology Definition: Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) is a genetic condition where individuals with XY chromosomes do not respond to androgens (male hormones), leading to the development of female physical traits despite having male chromosomes.
Summary: AIS is when people with male chromosomes don’t respond to male hormones, resulting in female physical characteristics.
Androgenized Female:
Psychology Definition: An androgenized female is a female who has been exposed to higher levels of androgens (male hormones) in utero, leading to more typically male physical traits.
Summary: An androgenized female is a girl who develops male-like physical traits due to high levels of male hormones before birth.
5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency:
Psychology Definition: 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency is a condition where the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase, which converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT), is deficient, affecting genital development in males.
Summary: 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency is a condition where a key enzyme for developing male genitalia is missing, impacting genital development in boys.
Gender:
Psychology Definition: Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural attributes, roles, and identities associated with being male or female, which may not necessarily align with biological sex.
Summary: Gender is about the roles and identities society assigns to being male or female, which can differ from biological sex.
Gender Identity:
Psychology Definition: Gender identity is a person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may be male, female, a blend of both, or neither, and may not necessarily match their biological sex.
Summary: Gender identity is how individuals perceive and identify their own gender, which might not match their biological sex.
Non-Binary:
Psychology Definition: Non-binary is a gender identity that does not fit within the traditional categories of male or female and may encompass a range of gender experiences outside the binary system.
Summary: Non-binary refers to gender identities that do not fit strictly into male or female categories.
Gender Roles:
Psychology Definition: Gender roles are societal expectations and norms for behavior and responsibilities typically associated with being male or female.
Summary: Gender roles are the expected behaviors and duties assigned to people based on whether they are male or female.
Gender Typing:
Psychology Definition: Gender typing is the process by which individuals learn and adopt the behaviors, interests, and traits considered appropriate for their gender by society.
Summary: Gender typing is when people learn and follow behaviors and interests deemed appropriate for their gender by society.
Observational Learning:
Psychology Definition: Observational learning is a process where individuals acquire new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others.
Summary: Observational learning occurs when people learn new behaviors by watching and copying others.
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement and Punishment):
Psychology Definition: Operant conditioning is a learning process where behaviors are shaped by rewards (reinforcement) or consequences (punishment), influencing the likelihood of those behaviors being repeated.
Summary: Operant conditioning involves learning behaviors through rewards or consequences, which affects whether those behaviors will happen again.
Gender Schemas:
Psychology Definition: Gender schemas are cognitive frameworks that organize and interpret information related to gender, influencing how individuals perceive and react to gender-related behaviors.
Summary: Gender schemas are mental frameworks that help people understand and react to gender-related behaviors and roles.
Prenatal Testosterone Exposure:
Psychology Definition: Prenatal testosterone exposure refers to the influence of testosterone levels in the womb on the development of gender-related traits and behaviors in the offspring.
Summary: Prenatal testosterone exposure affects the development of gender traits and behaviors before birth.
Gender Role Stereotypes:
Psychology Definition: Gender role stereotypes are widely held beliefs and expectations about how males and females should behave based on their gender.
Summary: Gender role stereotypes are common beliefs about how people of each gender are expected to act.
Androgyny:
Psychology Definition: Androgyny is a gender expression characterized by a combination of both masculine and feminine traits, often challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes.
Summary: Androgyny involves showing both masculine and feminine traits, blending traditional gender roles.
Transgender:
Psychology Definition: Transgender describes individuals whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
Summary: Transgender people have a gender identity that doesn’t match the sex they were assigned when they were born.
Transsexual:
Psychology Definition: Transsexual is a term for individuals who seek or have undergone medical procedures, such as hormone therapy or surgery, to align their physical body with their gender identity.
Summary: Transsexual refers to people who change their physical body to match their gender identity through medical treatments.
Gender Affirmation:
Psychology Definition: Gender affirmation involves actions and processes that support and validate an individual’s gender identity, which may include social, medical, or legal changes.
Summary: Gender affirmation is about supporting and confirming a person's gender identity through social, medical, or legal means.
Brain Size and Structure:
Psychology Definition: Brain size and structure refer to the physical dimensions and organization of the brain, which can influence cognitive functions and behaviors.
Summary: Brain size and structure involve the physical characteristics of the brain that affect how we think and behave.
Social Cognition:
Psychology Definition: Social cognition is the process of understanding and interpreting social information, including how we perceive, think about, and respond to others.
Summary: Social cognition is how we understand and interpret social information about people and interactions.
Mental Rotation:
Psychology Definition: Mental rotation is the ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space mentally, which is important for tasks involving spatial reasoning.
Summary: Mental rotation involves imagining and rotating objects in your mind to solve spatial problems.
Environmental Factors:
Psychology Definition: Environmental factors are external influences such as culture, upbringing, and life experiences that affect an individual's development and behavior.
Summary: Environmental factors are outside influences like culture and experiences that shape how we develop and behave.
Aggression:
Psychology Definition: Aggression is behavior intended to harm or intimidate others, which can be physical, verbal, or relational.
Summary: Aggression is behavior meant to hurt or threaten others, including physical and verbal actions.
Relational Aggression:
Psychology Definition: Relational aggression is a type of aggression that harms others through damaging relationships or social status, such as spreading rumors or exclusion.
Summary: Relational aggression involves harming others by hurting their relationships or social standing, like gossiping or excluding them.
Gender Similarity Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The gender similarity hypothesis proposes that males and females are more alike than different in most psychological variables, such as cognitive abilities and personality traits.
Summary: The gender similarity hypothesis suggests that men and women are more similar than different in most psychological traits.
Social Dominance:
Psychology Definition: Social dominance refers to the hierarchical ranking of individuals in social groups, where certain individuals or groups hold more power and influence over others.
Summary: Social dominance is about how people are ranked in a group, with some having more power and influence than others.
Connectedness:
Psychology Definition: Connectedness refers to the sense of being close and having meaningful relationships with others, which contributes to emotional well-being and social support.
Summary: Connectedness is feeling close to and having meaningful relationships with others, which supports emotional well-being.
Kin-Keeping:
Psychology Definition: Kin-keeping involves maintaining family connections and traditions, often including organizing family gatherings and keeping in touch with relatives.
Summary: Kin-keeping is about managing family relationships and traditions, like organizing events and staying in contact with relatives.
Masters and Johnson, Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution, Refractory Period
Psychology Definition: Masters and Johnson identified four stages of the human sexual response cycle: excitement (initial arousal), plateau (intensified arousal), orgasm (peak of sexual pleasure), and resolution (body returns to normal state), with a refractory period for men (time during which they cannot achieve another erection).
Summary: Masters and Johnson’s model includes stages of arousal, peak pleasure, and return to normal, with men needing rest before starting again.
Sexual Orientation, Continuum, Heterosexual, Homosexual, Bisexual, Asexual
Psychology Definition: Sexual orientation refers to an individual's pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others and can be viewed on a continuum, including heterosexual (opposite sex), homosexual (same sex), bisexual (both sexes), and asexual (no sexual attraction).
Summary: Sexual orientation is who you’re attracted to, whether it’s the opposite sex, same sex, both, or no one.
Females Display More Flexibility, Developmental Trend, Potential Causes of Sexual Orientation
Psychology Definition: Females often show more fluidity in their sexual orientation over time. Potential causes of sexual orientation include genetic differences, prenatal exposure to androgens, differences in the hypothalamus, having more older brothers, prenatal exposure to nicotine, and childhood experiences.
Summary: Women’s attraction can change more easily, and sexual orientation may be influenced by genes, hormones, brain differences, number of older brothers, prenatal nicotine, and childhood.
Biases Against Non-Heterosexuals
Psychology Definition: Individuals who are not heterosexual often face social biases and discrimination.
Summary: Non-heterosexual people may face unfair treatment and prejudice.
Male-Female Differences in Preferences for Partners’ Attributes, Evolutionary Explanations for this Sex Difference
Psychology Definition: Evolutionary theory suggests that males and females have different preferences for partner attributes due to reproductive strategies; males prefer youth and physical attractiveness (indicators of fertility), while females prefer resources and stability (indicators of ability to support offspring).
Summary: Evolutionary theory says men look for youth and beauty, and women look for resources and stability because of how they reproduce.
Number of Potential Offspring, Paternity Uncertainty, Minimal Invested Effort
Psychology Definition: Males can potentially father many offspring and face paternity uncertainty, which may lead them to seek multiple partners with minimal invested effort. Females invest more in each child and thus seek partners who can provide resources.
Summary: Men can have many kids and might not always be sure they're the father, so they might look for many partners. Women invest more in each child and want partners who can support them.
Sexual Trends (Married Compared to Non-Married, Gender Differences, Age Trends, Frequency of Sexual Behaviors), Sexting, Sex Education
Psychology Definition: Typical sexual behavior varies by marital status, gender, and age, with married individuals often having more frequent sex, gender differences in sexual activity, and changes in sexual behavior with age. Modern trends include sexting and the impact of comprehensive sex education.
Summary: Normal sexual behavior changes with marriage, gender, and age. Sexting is common now, and sex education helps people understand sex.
Sexual Dysfunctions, Problems with Desire or Arousal
Psychology Definition: Sexual dysfunctions include problems with sexual desire or arousal, such as erectile disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder.
Summary: Sexual dysfunctions can include issues with wanting sex or getting aroused.
Problems with Orgasm
Psychology Definition: Issues related to orgasm include female orgasmic disorder, premature ejaculation, and delayed orgasm.
Summary: Problems with orgasm include not being able to orgasm, finishing too quickly, or taking too long.
Problems with Pain
Psychology Definition: Sexual pain disorders include genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder, causing pain during intercourse.
Summary: Some people experience pain during sex, which can be a disorder.
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs), Bacterial: Syphilis, Gonorrhea, Chlamydia
Psychology Definition: Bacterial STIs include syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, which can be treated with antibiotics.
Summary: Bacterial STIs, like syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, can be cured with medicine.
Viral: Herpes, Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Genital Herpes
Psychology Definition: Viral STIs include herpes and HPV, which are chronic conditions that can be managed but not cured.
Summary: Viral STIs, like herpes and HPV, can’t be cured but can be treated.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Psychology Definition: HIV attacks the immune system and can lead to AIDS, a life-threatening condition where the immune system is severely weakened.
Summary: HIV damages the immune system and can cause AIDS, making it hard to fight off illnesses.
Sexual Scripts, Paraphilia, Fetishism, Pedophilia
Psychology Definition: Sexual scripts are societal norms about sexual behavior. Paraphilias are atypical sexual interests, such as fetishism (intense focus on non-genital body parts or objects) and pedophilia (sexual attraction to children).
Summary: Sexual scripts are cultural rules for sex. Paraphilias are unusual sexual interests, like being attracted to objects or children.
Potential Short Answer Question on the Exam
Part A Explain how exposure to high or low levels of prenatal testosterone can influence one's sexual orientation (who one is primarily attracted to). Be sure to explain what happens when an embryo/fetus is exposed to high levels of testosterone and what happens when an embryo/fetus is exposed to exposed to low levels of testosterone. If the sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of exposure to high or low levels of prenatal testosterone please state that in your answer. Part B Explain how the number of previous male pregnancies the mother had can influence one's sexual orientation (who one is primarily attracted to). If the sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of the number of previous male pregnancies the mother had, please state that in your answer. Each explanation is worth one point. I AM ONLY INTERESTED IN HOW THESE ISSUES INFLUENCE SEXUAL ORIENTATION (not how they may influence other factors). This question is worth two points.
High Levels of Prenatal Testosterone:
Embryo/Fetus Impact: When an embryo or fetus, regardless of its sex, is exposed to high levels of prenatal testosterone, it can influence the development of male-typical traits. For a male fetus, high levels of testosterone are typical and support the development of a heterosexual orientation (attraction to females). For a female fetus, unusually high levels of prenatal testosterone can increase the likelihood of a homosexual orientation (attraction to females).
Low Levels of Prenatal Testosterone:
Embryo/Fetus Impact: When an embryo or fetus, regardless of its sex, is exposed to low levels of prenatal testosterone, it can influence the development of female-typical traits. For a male fetus, unusually low levels of prenatal testosterone can increase the likelihood of a homosexual orientation (attraction to males). For a female fetus, low levels of testosterone are typical and support the development of a heterosexual orientation (attraction to males).
Summary: High prenatal testosterone levels can lead to male-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in males and homosexual in females), while low prenatal testosterone levels can lead to female-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in females and homosexual in males). The sex of the embryo/fetus influences the impact of testosterone levels on sexual orientation.
Fraternal Birth Order Effect:
Explanation: The fraternal birth order effect refers to the phenomenon where the number of older biological brothers a male has increases the likelihood of him having a homosexual orientation. This effect is specific to males and does not impact females.
Mechanism: It is hypothesized that with each male pregnancy, the mother's immune system may develop antibodies that affect the brain development of subsequent male fetuses, influencing their sexual orientation.
Summary: The more older biological brothers a male has, the higher the likelihood that he will have a homosexual orientation due to maternal immune response. This effect is specific to males and does not apply to females.
Part A: High levels of prenatal testosterone typically result in male-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in males, homosexual in females), while low levels result in female-typical sexual orientations (heterosexual in females, homosexual in males). The sex of the embryo/fetus influences these outcomes.
Part B: The likelihood of a male having a homosexual orientation increases with the number of older biological brothers he has, due to maternal immune responses. This effect is specific to males.
4o
Personality
Psychology Definition: Personality refers to the unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions shown by individuals.
Summary: Personality is what makes you, you – the way you act, think, and feel.
Temperament
Psychology Definition: Temperament refers to the basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life.
Summary: Temperament is your natural way of reacting to things, like being shy or outgoing.
Psychoanalytic
Psychology Definition: The psychoanalytic perspective, founded by Freud, emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality.
Summary: Psychoanalytic theory says our deep, hidden thoughts and early life shape who we are.
Behavioral
Psychology Definition: The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interactions with the environment.
Summary: Behavioral theory looks at how we learn to act from what happens around us.
Humanistic
Psychology Definition: The humanistic perspective emphasizes individual growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization.
Summary: Humanistic theory believes everyone can grow and be the best version of themselves.
Social-Cognitive
Psychology Definition: The social-cognitive perspective highlights the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, and situational influences on behavior.
Summary: Social-cognitive theory says we learn by watching others and that our actions are influenced by our thoughts and the situation.
Biological
Psychology Definition: The biological perspective examines the role of genetic and physiological processes in personality development.
Summary: Biological theory looks at how our genes and brain affect who we are.
Trait
Psychology Definition: The trait perspective focuses on identifying and measuring the specific traits that make up human personality.
Summary: Trait theory describes people based on their individual characteristics, like being kind or adventurous.
Unconscious
Psychology Definition: The unconscious mind contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but influence behavior.
Summary: The unconscious is like a hidden part of your mind that affects how you act without you knowing.
Preconscious
Psychology Definition: The preconscious mind includes thoughts and feelings that are not currently in awareness but can be easily brought to consciousness.
Summary: The preconscious is like a memory you can easily remember if you try.
Conscious
Psychology Definition: The conscious mind contains thoughts and feelings that we are currently aware of.
Summary: The conscious is what you're thinking and feeling right now.
Id
Psychology Definition: The id is the part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic urges and desires.
Summary: The id is the part of you that wants things right now, like food or fun.
Pleasure Principle
Psychology Definition: The pleasure principle is the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.
Summary: The pleasure principle is wanting things right away without waiting.
Ego
Psychology Definition: The ego operates on the reality principle, mediating between the desires of the id and the constraints of reality.
Summary: The ego helps you deal with reality and makes sure you don’t act on every impulse.
Reality Principle
Psychology Definition: The reality principle is the guiding principle of the ego that seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets can be found.
Summary: The reality principle makes you wait for the right time to get what you want.
Superego
Psychology Definition: The superego incorporates the moral standards and values of society and serves as an internal judge of right and wrong.
Summary: The superego is like your conscience, telling you what’s right and wrong.
Repression
Psychology Definition: Repression involves unconsciously blocking unpleasant emotions, impulses, or memories from conscious awareness.
Summary: Repression is like hiding bad memories deep in your mind so you don't think about them.
Rationalization
Psychology Definition: Rationalization involves creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
Summary: Rationalization is making excuses for something you did that you feel bad about.
Displacement
Psychology Definition: Displacement involves shifting emotional impulses from a threatening target to a safer one.
Summary: Displacement is taking out your feelings on something or someone else who isn't the cause.
Projection
Psychology Definition: Projection involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.
Summary: Projection is thinking other people have the same bad thoughts you do.
Reaction Formation
Psychology Definition: Reaction formation involves behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings.
Summary: Reaction formation is acting the opposite of how you really feel.
Denial
Psychology Definition: Denial involves refusing to accept reality or facts, blocking external events from awareness.
Summary: Denial is not believing something bad is happening.
Regression
Psychology Definition: Regression involves reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development.
Summary: Regression is acting like a younger child when you're stressed.
Sublimation
Psychology Definition: Sublimation involves channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.
Summary: Sublimation is turning bad feelings into something good, like art or sports.
Identification
Psychology Definition: Identification involves adopting the characteristics of someone else to cope with anxiety.
Summary: Identification is copying someone you admire to feel better about yourself.
Oral
Psychology Definition: The oral stage is the first stage in Freud’s psychosexual development, focusing on pleasure derived from the mouth.
Summary: The oral stage is when babies find pleasure in sucking and biting.
Anal
Psychology Definition: The anal stage focuses on pleasure derived from control over bowel movements.
Summary: The anal stage is when toddlers learn to control their potty training.
Phallic
Psychology Definition: The phallic stage focuses on pleasure derived from the genital area and the resolution of the Oedipus complex.
Summary: The phallic stage is when kids start noticing differences between boys and girls.
Oedipus Complex
Psychology Definition: The Oedipus complex is a boy’s desire for his mother and rivalry with his father.
Summary: The Oedipus complex is when a boy feels like he loves his mom and competes with his dad.
Electra Complex (this term was coined by Jung)
Psychology Definition: The Electra complex is a girl’s desire for her father and rivalry with her mother.
Summary: The Electra complex is when a girl feels like she loves her dad and competes with her mom.
Castration Anxiety
Psychology Definition: Castration anxiety is a boy’s fear of losing his genital organs as punishment for his desires for his mother.
Summary: Castration anxiety is a boy’s fear that his dad will punish him by taking away his genitals.
Penis Envy
Psychology Definition: Penis envy is a girl’s sense of loss and jealousy over not having a penis.
Summary: Penis envy is when a girl feels upset because she doesn’t have a penis.
Identification
Psychology Definition: Identification is when a child adopts the values and behaviors of the same-sex parent.
Summary: Identification is when kids copy their mom or dad to be like them.
Latency
Psychology Definition: The latency stage is a period of relative calm between more turbulent stages where sexual impulses are repressed.
Summary: The latency stage is a time when kids focus on school and friends, not on sex.
Genital
Psychology Definition: The genital stage is the final stage of psychosexual development, focusing on mature sexual intimacy.
Summary: The genital stage is when teenagers develop adult sexual feelings.
Fixation
Psychology Definition: Fixation occurs when an individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage due to unresolved conflicts.
Summary: Fixation is getting stuck in a certain stage because you didn’t solve its problems.
Adler, Individual Psychology, Inferiority Complex
Psychology Definition: Adler’s individual psychology focuses on the drive to overcome feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority.
Summary: Adler thought people try to feel better than others to make up for feeling less than.
Jung, Personal Unconscious, Collective Unconscious, Archetypes
Psychology Definition: Jung’s theory includes the personal unconscious (similar to Freud's unconscious) and the collective unconscious, which contains universal memories and archetypes shared among humans.
Summary: Jung believed we all share deep memories and symbols, like the hero or the mother.
Horney, Rejected Penis Envy
Psychology Definition: Horney rejected Freud’s concept of penis envy and argued that women’s feelings of inferiority stem from social disadvantages, not anatomy.
Summary: Horney thought women feel inferior because of society, not because they don’t have a penis.
Critique of Freud’s Theory
Non-representative Sample
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories were based on a small, non-representative group of people, making them less generalizable.
Summary: Freud's ideas came from a few people, so they might not apply to everyone.
Too Focused on Sexual Issues
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories overly emphasize sexual development and impulses.
Summary: Freud's theories talk too much about sex.
Non-testable
Psychology Definition: Many of Freud’s concepts are difficult to scientifically test and measure.
Summary: Freud’s ideas can’t be easily proven or disproven.
After the Fact Explanations
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories often explain behaviors after they occur, rather than predicting them.
Summary: Freud’s ideas explain things after they happen, not before.
Applicability Toward Women
Psychology Definition: Freud’s theories are often criticized for being biased against women.
Summary: Freud's ideas aren’t fair to women.
Development Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Assumed
Psychology Definition: Freud believed personality development was largely completed by early childhood, which has been disputed.
Summary: Freud thought we were mostly shaped by childhood, but that’s not entirely true.
Positives – Clinical Utility, Focus on the Unconscious, Broad Theory
Psychology Definition: Despite criticisms, Freud’s theories have clinical utility, focus on the unconscious mind, and offer a comprehensive view of personality.
Summary: Freud’s ideas are still useful in therapy, focus on deep thoughts, and cover a lot.
Maslow, Characteristics of Self-Actualizers
Psychology Definition: Maslow’s self-actualizers are individuals who have realized their full potential and possess qualities like creativity, spontaneity, and a sense of purpose.
Summary: Maslow’s self-actualizers are people who’ve become the best they can be.
Rogers, Self-Concept, Ideal Self, Actual Self, Congruency and Incongruency, Unconditional Positive Regard
Psychology Definition: Rogers believed in the importance of the self-concept (how we see ourselves), the ideal self (how we wish to be), and achieving congruence between the two. Unconditional positive regard is accepting and valuing a person without conditions.
Summary: Rogers thought we need to match who we are with who we want to be and feel loved no matter what.
Critiques of Humanistic Approach
Pros: Positive View of People, Influence on Positive Psychology
Psychology Definition: The humanistic approach offers a positive outlook on human nature and has influenced the field of positive psychology.
Summary: The humanistic approach sees the good in people and has inspired positive psychology.
Cons: Concepts are Subjective and Vague, Hard to Assess
Psychology Definition: Critics argue that humanistic concepts are often too subjective, vague, and difficult to measure scientifically.
Summary: The humanistic approach can be unclear and hard to measure.
Rotter, Locus of Control, Internal Locus of Control, External Locus of Control, Expectancies
Psychology Definition: Rotter’s locus of control refers to whether people believe they control their own fate (internal) or are controlled by external factors (external).
Summary: Rotter’s locus of control is about whether you think you control your life or if others do.
Bandura, Social-Cognitive Perspective, Self-Efficacy, Reciprocal Determinism
Psychology Definition: Bandura’s social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction between individuals and their environment, focusing on self-efficacy (belief in one’s abilities) and reciprocal determinism (the mutual influence of person, behavior, and environment).
Summary: Bandura’s theory says we learn by watching others and our environment affects us as we affect it.
Trait Theories
Psychology Definition: Trait theories focus on describing personality characteristics rather than explaining how they develop.
Summary: Trait theories list traits that make up our personality.
Factor Analysis
Psychology Definition: Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits.
Summary: Factor analysis finds which traits go together.
Eysenck’s Introversion-Extroversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism
Psychology Definition: Eysenck’s model includes dimensions of introversion-extroversion (sociability), neuroticism (emotional stability), and psychoticism (aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility).
Summary: Eysenck’s traits measure how outgoing, emotional, and tough you are.
The Big 5/Five Factor Model: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N.)
Psychology Definition: The Big Five model identifies five key dimensions of personality: openness to new experiences, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Summary: The Big Five traits describe people based on five main characteristics: being open, careful, outgoing, kind, and emotionally stable.
Heritability Estimates of the Big 5
Psychology Definition: Heritability estimates refer to the proportion of variation in personality traits that can be attributed to genetic factors.
Summary: Heritability of the Big 5 looks at how much our genes affect our personality.
Mischel and the Person-Situation Controversy
Psychology Definition: Mischel argued that behavior is influenced more by situational factors than by stable personality traits.
Summary: Mischel thought that situations, not just traits, determine how we act.
Big 5 Traits May Not Apply to Non-Industrial Cultures
Psychology Definition: Research suggests that the Big Five traits may not fully capture personality variations in non-industrialized cultures.
Summary: The Big Five traits might not fit people from all cultures.
Reliability
Psychology Definition: Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure; a reliable test produces similar results under consistent conditions.
Summary: Reliability is making sure a test gives the same results every time.
Test-Retest Reliability
Psychology Definition: Test-retest reliability measures the stability of test scores over time.
Summary: Test-retest reliability checks if you get the same score when you take the test again.
Interrater Reliability
Psychology Definition: Interrater reliability measures the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior.
Summary: Interrater reliability is when different people score a test the same way.
Predictive Validity
Psychology Definition: Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a score on a scale or test predicts future behavior or performance.
Summary: Predictive validity is how well a test predicts what will happen in the future.
Projective Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that may reveal aspects of an individual’s personality.
Summary: Projective tests show unclear images to see what people think about them, revealing their personality.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Psychology Definition: The Rorschach inkblot test involves interpreting inkblots to uncover underlying thoughts and feelings.
Summary: The Rorschach test asks what you see in inkblots to understand your mind.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Psychology Definition: The TAT uses pictures of ambiguous situations to elicit stories that reveal personality traits and motives.
Summary: The TAT asks you to tell stories about pictures to show your personality.
Tests Concepts Indirectly, Less Reactance
Psychology Definition: Projective tests may reduce reactance (resistance) because they don't directly ask about personal issues.
Summary: Projective tests can reveal more because they don’t ask directly about sensitive topics.
Issues Concerning the Reliability and Validity of Projective Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests often face criticisms for their lack of reliability and validity.
Summary: Projective tests can be unreliable and may not measure what they claim.
Time to Complete the Tests
Psychology Definition: Projective tests can be time-consuming to administer and interpret.
Summary: Projective tests take a long time to do and analyze.
Objective Personality Tests
Psychology Definition: Objective personality tests use structured, standardized questions to assess various aspects of personality.
Summary: Objective tests use set questions to measure personality.
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
Psychology Definition: The MMPI is a widely used objective test that assesses a range of psychological conditions and personality attributes.
Summary: The MMPI is a test that checks for different psychological traits and issues.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Psychology Definition: The MBTI categorizes individuals into personality types based on preferences in four areas: extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, and judging/perceiving.
Summary: The MBTI sorts people into personality types based on how they prefer to act and think.
Standardized, High Reliability, High Validity
Psychology Definition: Objective tests are standardized and generally exhibit high reliability and validity.
Summary: Objective tests are reliable, valid, and fair because they follow a set procedure.
People May Lie, Social Desirability Bias
Psychology Definition: People might lie on objective tests or answer in a way they think is socially acceptable.
Summary: People might not always tell the truth on objective tests, wanting to look good.
Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam
Provide at least (a) two criticisms/weaknesses and (b) one strength of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. At least five weaknesses and three strengths were discussed in class or in the text. Each answer provided is worth one point (three points maximum). You may want to provide answers for more than three concepts to increase the likelihood that you earn full credit.
Criticisms/Weaknesses:
Overemphasis on Sexuality:
Explanation: Freud's theory places excessive emphasis on sexual drives and conflicts as the primary forces behind human behavior and development.
Example: Concepts like the Oedipus complex suggest that sexual desires towards parents are central to personality development, which many modern psychologists find overly simplistic and not representative of the full range of human motivations.
Personality is Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Claimed:
Explanation: Freud believed that personality development is largely completed by the end of early childhood, but contemporary research shows that personality can change and develop throughout the lifespan.
Example: Significant changes in personality traits can occur during adolescence and adulthood, influenced by life experiences and environmental factors.
Impossible to Disprove:
Explanation: Many of Freud's concepts, such as the unconscious mind and repressed memories, are not easily testable or falsifiable, making it difficult to scientifically validate his theories.
Example: The idea that unconscious motives drive behavior cannot be empirically measured, leading to criticism that Freud's theory lacks scientific rigor.
Strengths:
Breadth:
Explanation: Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding a wide range of human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.
Example: His theory addresses various aspects of development, personality, and mental disorders, offering a broad perspective on human psychology.
Focus on Unconscious Motivation:
Explanation: Freud highlighted the importance of unconscious processes in influencing behavior, which was a groundbreaking concept in psychology.
Example: The recognition that unconscious motives and conflicts can affect conscious thoughts and actions has been integrated into many modern psychological theories and therapies.
Clinical Utility:
Explanation: Despite its criticisms, Freud's theory has been influential in the field of psychotherapy and has led to the development of various therapeutic techniques.
Example: Techniques such as free association and dream analysis are still used in some forms of therapy today to explore unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts.
Criticisms/Weaknesses of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory:
Overemphasis on Sexuality
Explanation: Freud's theory places excessive emphasis on sexual drives and conflicts as the primary forces behind human behavior and development.
Example: Concepts like the Oedipus complex suggest that sexual desires towards parents are central to personality development, which many modern psychologists find overly simplistic and not representative of the full range of human motivations.
Personality is Not as Fixed in Childhood as Freud Claimed
Explanation: Freud believed that personality development is largely completed by the end of early childhood, but contemporary research shows that personality can change and develop throughout the lifespan.
Example: Significant changes in personality traits can occur during adolescence and adulthood, influenced by life experiences and environmental factors.
Impossible to Disprove
Explanation: Many of Freud's concepts, such as the unconscious mind and repressed memories, are not easily testable or falsifiable, making it difficult to scientifically validate his theories.
Example: The idea that unconscious motives drive behavior cannot be empirically measured, leading to criticism that Freud's theory lacks scientific rigor.
Strengths of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory:
Breadth
Explanation: Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding a wide range of human behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.
Example: His theory addresses various aspects of development, personality, and mental disorders, offering a broad perspective on human psychology.
Focus on Unconscious Motivation
Explanation: Freud highlighted the importance of unconscious processes in influencing behavior, which was a groundbreaking concept in psychology.
Example: The recognition that unconscious motives and conflicts can affect conscious thoughts and actions has been integrated into many modern psychological theories and therapies.
Clinical Utility
Explanation: Despite its criticisms, Freud's theory has been influential in the field of psychotherapy and has led to the development of various therapeutic techniques.
Example: Techniques such as free association and dream analysis are still used in some forms of therapy today to explore unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts.
Define and give examples of the following defense mechanisms: (a) repression, (b) regression, (c) projection, (d) displacement, (e) rationalization, and (f) reaction formation. Each definition is worth a ½ point and each correct example is worth a ½ point. If I ask this question on the test, I will only ask about three of the terms.
Defense Mechanisms:
(a) Repression:
Definition: Unconsciously blocking unpleasant or threatening thoughts from awareness.
Example: Forgetting a traumatic event.
(b) Regression:
Definition: Reverting to an earlier developmental stage under stress.
Example: Thumb-sucking in a stressed teenager.
(c) Projection:
Definition: Attributing one's unacceptable thoughts to others.
Example: Believing a colleague dislikes you when you dislike them.
(d) Displacement:
Definition: Redirecting emotions to a safer substitute.
Example: Taking out work frustration on family.
(e) Rationalization:
Definition: Creating logical excuses for irrational behavior.
Example: Blaming test difficulty for poor performance.
(f) Reaction Formation:
Definition: Behaving oppositely to one's true feelings.
Example: Acting homophobic to cover up one's own insecurities.
LO 1 Identify the factors that influence the likelihood of someone conforming.
Conformity:
Psychology Definition: Conformity is the act of changing one’s behavior or beliefs to align with the norms or expectations of a group or society.
Summary: Conformity is when you change how you act or think to fit in with a group.
Norms:
Psychology Definition: Norms are the shared rules or standards that dictate acceptable behavior within a group or society.
Summary: Norms are the guidelines for how people are expected to behave in a group.
Asch’s Conformity Study:
Psychology Definition: Asch’s conformity study, conducted by Solomon Asch, investigated the extent to which individuals would conform to a group’s incorrect answer to a simple question, revealing the impact of group pressure on conformity.
Summary: Asch’s study showed how people might agree with a group’s wrong answer just to fit in.
Normative Social Influence:
Psychology Definition: Normative social influence occurs when individuals conform to gain approval or avoid disapproval from others, even if they do not personally agree with the group.
Summary: Normative social influence is when you conform to fit in and be liked by others, even if you don’t agree with them.
Informative Social Influence:
Psychology Definition: Informative social influence happens when individuals conform because they believe others have accurate information or knowledge, and they want to make correct decisions.
Summary: Informative social influence is when you follow others because you think they know what’s right or accurate.
Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect Study:
Psychology Definition: Sherif’s autokinetic effect study investigated how people’s perceptions of movement in a dark room changed over time as they conformed to the group’s estimates, demonstrating the influence of group norms on individual judgments.
Summary: Sherif’s study showed how people’s guesses about movement in a dark room changed to match what the group said.
Why Conform:
Feel Insecure:
Psychology Definition: Individuals may conform because they feel unsure of themselves and seek guidance from the group to make decisions or judgments.
Summary: People often conform because they feel uncertain and look to the group for guidance.
Group Is Large:
Psychology Definition: Conformity tends to increase as the size of the group grows, as larger groups create more pressure to conform.
Summary: People are more likely to conform if the group is bigger.
Group Is Unanimous:
Psychology Definition: Conformity is more likely when the entire group is in agreement, as unanimity creates strong social pressure to align with
LO 2 Describe obedience and explain how Stanley Milgram studied it.
Obedience:
Psychology Definition: Obedience is the act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure, often without questioning the validity or morality of the directive.
Summary: Obedience is when people follow orders from someone in charge, even if they might not agree with them.
Milgram’s Obedience Studies:
Psychology Definition: Milgram’s obedience studies, conducted by Stanley Milgram, investigated the extent to which individuals would follow orders from an authority figure to administer electric shocks to another person, even when it conflicted with their personal conscience.
Summary: Milgram’s studies showed how people might follow orders from an authority to do something harmful, like giving electric shocks, even if they don’t want to.
What Affects Obedience:
Legitimacy of the Authority Figure:
Psychology Definition: The legitimacy of the authority figure refers to how likely people are to obey instructions based on how authoritative and credible the figure appears to be.
Summary: People are more likely to obey if they think the person giving orders is important or has authority.
Physical Proximity of the Learner and Teacher:
Psychology Definition: The physical proximity of the learner and teacher affects obedience, with increased proximity making it more difficult for the teacher to administer harmful actions to the learner.
Summary: People are less likely to obey harmful orders if the person they are affecting is close to them.
Physical Proximity of the Experimenter (Authority Figure) and Teacher:
Psychology Definition: The physical proximity of the experimenter to the teacher influences obedience, with closer proximity often increasing the likelihood that the teacher will follow the experimenter’s instructions.
Summary: Teachers are more likely to obey commands if the authority figure is physically close to them.
Get to Pick Levels of Shock Administered:
Psychology Definition: When individuals are given the option to choose the level of shock administered, they tend to administer lower levels of shock compared to when given direct orders, which can reduce obedience.
Summary: If people can choose how strong the shocks are, they usually give less severe shocks than if they are just told to administer them.
LO 3 Recognize the circumstances that influence the occurrence of the bystander effect.
Bystander Intervention:
Psychology Definition: Bystander intervention involves three key steps: noticing the event, interpreting it as an emergency, and assuming personal responsibility to act.
Summary: Bystander intervention is when someone notices, realizes it’s an emergency, and decides to help.
Bystander Effect:
Psychology Definition: The bystander effect is the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when other people are present, due to the diffusion of responsibility.
Summary: The bystander effect is when people are less likely to help in emergencies if there are others around who could also help.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
Psychology Definition: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group assume that someone else will take action, leading to a reduced likelihood of any one person intervening.
Summary: Diffusion of responsibility is when people think someone else will take action, so they don’t do anything themselves.
Informative Influence:
Psychology Definition: Informative influence is when individuals conform to others' actions or beliefs because they believe those others have accurate information and are providing guidance on how to act.
Summary: Informative influence happens when people follow others because they think those others know what’s right or accurate.
Normative Influence:
Psychology Definition: Normative influence is when individuals conform to fit in with the group or gain approval, even if they don't necessarily agree with the group’s actions or beliefs.
Summary: Normative influence is when people conform to fit in with others or gain their approval, even if they don’t really agree.
LO 4 Define stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination and recognize how group affiliation influences the development of stereotypes and prejudice.
Prejudice:
Psychology Definition: Prejudice is a negative or positive attitude or feeling towards a person or group based on their perceived membership in a particular social category.
Summary: Prejudice is when you have a biased attitude towards someone based on their group membership, whether positive or negative.
Stereotypes:
Psychology Definition: Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or assumptions about a group of people, often oversimplified and not based on accurate information.
Summary: Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about a group of people, assuming everyone in the group is the same.
Discrimination:
Psychology Definition: Discrimination is the unfair treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group, which can manifest in actions or behaviors.
Summary: Discrimination is when people are treated unfairly because of their group membership.
Social Categorization:
Psychology Definition: Social categorization is the process of classifying people into groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, or age, which helps simplify and organize social information.
Summary: Social categorization is how we group people based on traits like race or gender to make sense of social interactions.
Ingroups:
Psychology Definition: Ingroups are groups to which individuals perceive themselves as belonging, often characterized by shared interests or identities.
Summary: Ingroups are the groups people feel they belong to and share common interests with.
Outgroups:
Psychology Definition: Outgroups are groups that individuals perceive as distinct from their own ingroup, often leading to biases and stereotypes.
Summary: Outgroups are groups that are seen as different from one’s own group.
Ingroup Bias:
Psychology Definition: Ingroup bias is the tendency to favor and give preferential treatment to members of one’s own group over those in outgroups.
Summary: Ingroup bias is when you prefer and treat people in your own group better than those in other groups.
Outgroup Homogeneity:
Psychology Definition: Outgroup homogeneity is the perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than they actually are, often leading to generalizations and stereotypes.
Summary: Outgroup homogeneity is thinking that everyone in a different group is the same, even though they are not.
Ethnocentrism:
Psychology Definition: Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own cultural or ethnic group is superior to others, often resulting in viewing other cultures through a biased lens.
Summary: Ethnocentrism is thinking your own culture is better than others and judging other cultures based on your own.
Implicit Prejudices:
Psychology Definition: Implicit prejudices are unconscious biases or attitudes towards individuals or groups that influence behavior and judgments without the individual’s awareness.
Summary: Implicit prejudices are hidden biases that affect how we feel and act towards others without us realizing it.
Social Identity Theory:
Psychology Definition: Social identity theory posits that individuals derive a sense of self and self-worth from their membership in social groups, which influences their attitudes and behaviors towards others.
Summary: Social identity theory is the idea that people’s self-esteem and behaviors are influenced by the social groups they belong to.
Just World Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The just world hypothesis is the belief that the world is fair and people get what they deserve, leading to the assumption that bad things happen to those who are deemed deserving of them.
Summary: The just world hypothesis is thinking that people get what they deserve, so bad things happening to others are seen as their fault.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis/Scapegoat Theory:
Psychology Definition: The frustration-aggression hypothesis, or scapegoat theory, suggests that frustration from unmet goals can lead to aggression, which is often directed at a convenient or less threatening target (scapegoat).
Summary: This theory says that frustration can cause aggression, which may be directed at an easier or less threatening target, called a scapegoat.
Stereotype Threat:
Psychology Definition: Stereotype threat is the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s own group, which can negatively affect performance and behavior.
Summary: Stereotype threat is when worrying about confirming negative stereotypes affects how well people perform or behave.
Zimbardo’s Prison Study:
Psychology Definition: Zimbardo’s prison study, conducted by Philip Zimbardo, explored how people conform to social roles and how situational factors can lead to extreme behavior, using a simulated prison environment.
Summary: Zimbardo’s prison study showed how people can act drastically differently when assigned to certain social roles, like guards and prisoners in a fake prison.
Social Roles:
Psychology Definition: Social roles are expected behaviors and responsibilities associated with a particular position or status within a group or society.
Summary: Social roles are the expected actions and duties for someone in a specific position or group.
LO 5 Identify the three major factors contributing to interpersonal attraction.
Proximity:
Psychology Definition: Proximity refers to the physical or geographical closeness between individuals, which increases the likelihood of interaction and relationship formation.
Summary: Proximity is about how being close to someone physically can make it more likely for a relationship to develop.
Mere Exposure Effect:
Psychology Definition: The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where people develop a preference for things they are frequently exposed to.
Summary: The mere exposure effect is when people start liking things more simply because they see or encounter them often.
Speed Dating:
Psychology Definition: Speed dating is a social event where individuals participate in a series of short, timed interactions with potential partners to quickly assess mutual interest.
Summary: Speed dating is a way to meet many potential partners in a short time by having brief conversations with each.
Physical Attraction:
Psychology Definition: Physical attraction is the degree to which an individual's physical appearance elicits a desire for a romantic or sexual relationship.
Summary: Physical attraction is when someone’s looks make them appealing for a romantic or sexual relationship.
What Is Attractive:
Psychology Definition: Attractiveness can be influenced by cultural standards, symmetry, and average features, with beauty often being defined by societal norms and preferences.
Summary: Attractiveness is shaped by cultural standards, symmetry, and features that are close to the average, as well as societal norms.
Halo Effect:
Psychology Definition: The halo effect is a cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the assumption of other positive traits in a person.
Summary: The halo effect happens when one good quality of a person makes us think they have other good qualities too.
Similarity:
Psychology Definition: Similarity is the extent to which individuals share common attributes, interests, or values, which can enhance interpersonal attraction and relationship satisfaction.
Summary: Similarity is when people who share common interests or values are more likely to be attracted to each other and have satisfying relationships.
Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love:
Psychology Definition: Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love posits that love is composed of three components: commitment, passion, and intimacy. Different combinations of these components result in different types of love.
Summary: Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love says that love includes commitment, passion, and intimacy, and different blends of these create various types of love.
Commitment:
Psychology Definition: Commitment is the decision to maintain a long-term relationship with a partner and to invest in that relationship's future.
Summary: Commitment is the dedication to stay in a relationship and work on it over time.
Passion:
Psychology Definition: Passion refers to the intense emotional and physical attraction one feels towards a partner, often associated with romance and desire.
Summary: Passion is the strong feelings of attraction and desire you have for someone.
Intimacy:
Psychology Definition: Intimacy involves emotional closeness, connection, and the sharing of personal thoughts and feelings with a partner.
Summary: Intimacy is about being emotionally close and sharing personal thoughts and feelings with someone.
Romantic Love:
Psychology Definition: Romantic love typically includes high levels of passion and intimacy, often characterized by intense emotional connection and desire.
Summary: Romantic love involves strong feelings of passion and emotional closeness with someone.
Companionate Love:
Psychology Definition: Companionate love is characterized by deep affection, commitment, and intimacy, but typically with lower levels of passion compared to romantic love.
Summary: Companionate love involves deep affection and commitment but less intense passion compared to romantic love.
LO 6 Describe how having others around affect people. (This Learning Objective was added.)
Social Facilitation:
Psychology Definition: Social facilitation is the tendency for people to perform differently in the presence of others compared to when they are alone, often improving performance on easy tasks but impairing it on hard tasks. This effect can be due to increased arousal or evaluation apprehension.
Summary: Social facilitation means people might do better on easy tasks and worse on hard tasks when others are watching, due to increased arousal or concern about being judged.
Social Loafing:
Psychology Definition: Social loafing is the phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone. The effect decreases if each person's contributions can be identified.
Summary: Social loafing happens when people work less hard in a group than alone, but this reduces if everyone's work is visible.
Cultural Differences in Social Loafing:
Psychology Definition: Cultural differences in social loafing refer to variations in the tendency to reduce effort in group settings based on cultural values, with collectivist cultures typically showing less social loafing compared to individualist cultures.
Summary: Different cultures vary in social loafing, with people from collectivist cultures usually loafing less than those from individualist cultures.
Diffusion of Responsibility:
Psychology Definition: Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less personal responsibility to act or intervene because the responsibility is shared among all members.
Summary: Diffusion of responsibility is when people in a group feel less accountable for taking action because they think others will do it.
Free Ride:
Psychology Definition: Free riding is a form of social loafing where individuals benefit from the group’s efforts without contributing their fair share of work.
Summary: Free riding is when people take advantage of the group's work without doing their part.
Deindividuation:
Psychology Definition: Deindividuation is a psychological state characterized by a loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, often leading to behavior that is atypical for the individual.
Summary: Deindividuation happens when people lose their sense of self in a group and behave in ways they normally wouldn’t.
Risky Shift:
Psychology Definition: Risky shift refers to the tendency for group decisions to be riskier than the average decisions made by individuals within the group.
Summary: Risky shift is when groups make riskier choices than individuals would on their own.
Group Polarization:
Psychology Definition: Group polarization is the phenomenon where group discussions lead to more extreme positions or decisions than the initial individual preferences of group members.
Summary: Group polarization is when discussions in a group lead to more extreme opinions or decisions than what individuals initially thought.
Groupthink:
Psychology Definition: Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony and conformity in a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes.
Summary: Groupthink occurs when a group’s desire for agreement leads to poor or irrational decisions.
Learning Objectives 7 and 8 below are from the content from Chapter 13a - I only will test on the cognitive dissonance and the content we covered in lecture
LO 7 Describe several common attributional errors.
Just-World Hypothesis:
Psychology Definition: The just-world hypothesis is the belief that people get what they deserve in life, leading individuals to perceive that justice is always served and that bad things happen to people due to their own actions.
Summary: The just-world hypothesis is the idea that people believe everyone gets what they deserve, so bad things happening to others are seen as their own fault.
Self-Serving Bias:
Psychology Definition: Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to one’s own actions and abilities while blaming negative outcomes on external factors or other people.
Summary: Self-serving bias is when people take credit for their successes but blame failures on outside factors.
LO 8 Define attitudes and recognize factors associated with persuasion.
Cognitive Dissonance:
Psychology Definition: Cognitive dissonance is the psychological discomfort experienced when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values, or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs.
Summary: Cognitive dissonance is the stress felt when someone's beliefs or actions don't match, causing them to seek ways to reduce the conflict.
Potential Short Answer Questions on the Exam
Explain the factors that affect the likelihood that an individual will conform to a group’s position. That is, what about the individual, the group or the situation might affect the likelihood the person conforms. For each explanation you must report whether their concept increases or decreases the likelihood that the person conforms. If you think hair length plays a role, you will have to state whether having long or short hair makes the person more likely to conform (Note hair length is not a factor). At least seven factors were discussed in lecture or in the text. Each factor explained in worth ¾ of a point (a minimum of four need to be provided for full credit). This question is worth three points.
Explain how each of the following factors affected the likelihood that participants obeyed the experimenter in Milgram’s studies (a) how close the teacher was to the learner, (b) how close the teacher was to the experimenter, and (c) whether the teacher could pick how much shock to deliver to the learner. Each answer is worth one point. (This question is from content that was only out of the book and an online assignment). This question is worth three points.
[a]have no idea what this means tbh
