Quest 2

PSYC351

Chapter 2 Study Guide

Chapter 12

1. Describe the HM case study and discuss what this case study taught us about memory and the brain

The HM case study is a study on a young man who underwent a lobotomy in order to possibly relieve him from his seizures which were making it impossible to function within his daily life. The surgery he underwent removed his hippocampus and it was successful, however, with the removal of his seizures also came the removal of his ability to store new declarative memories. He was still able to develop nondeclarative memories, like habits and skills, but he could no longer remember names, places, and faces. This supports the theory of localization for the ability to create new memories, however, it also demonstrates that there may be many different parts of the brain involved in memories and not all memories stored in the same way. 

2. Differentiate between different types of amnesia

Anterograde amnesia is when a person is no longer able to create memories after a brain injury. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall memories from before a brain injury. 

3. Identify the three stages of memory

The three stages of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is a process in which the brain processes information in order for it to be stored. The information is translated into neural coding. Storage, also known as consolidation, is the neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory. Retrieval is the act of recalling stored information when it is needed. 

4. Describe the three memory stores

The three memory stores are sensory memory, short term memory (also known as working memory) and long term memory. Sensory memory is stored for the shortest amount of time and is selectively attended to. This includes things like feeling the clothes on your skin, smells, sound, etc. If we processed all of this information, we would be overwhelmed! Short term memory is another kind of memory that isn’t stored long. It must be rehearsed in order to be remembered, if it is encoded it is translated into long term memory. 

5. Describe brain areas involved in memory

The hippocampus is one area involved in memory, however there are also theories that the prefrontal lobe and dopamine is involved in learning.  

6. Differentiate between two type of learning

Declarative memory (learning) and nondeclarative memory. 

7. Define working memory

Working memory is memory that is briefly stored and must be continuously rehearsed to be remembered or encoded to be translated into long term memory. It is an active processing system. 

8. Define LTP, LTD, and associated LTP

LTP - Long Term Potential:

LTD - Long Term Depression:

Associative LTP - Associative Long Term Potential

9. Describe ways in which memory may change

   1. Extinction

   2. Forgetting

   3. Reconsolidation

Chapter 8

1. Define emotion.

an increase or decrease in physiological activity that is accompanied by feeling that are characteristic of the emotion and often accompanied by a characteristic behavior or facial expression

2. Identify the six basic emotions.

Anger

Fear 

Disgust

Surprise

Happy

Sadness

3. Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in emotion.

Sympathetic nervous system activation

• Activates the body during arousal 

  • Increases heart rate

  • Increases respiration rate increases sweat gland activity

  • Shuts down digestion

  • Constructs peripheral blood vessels

  • Raised blood pressure 

  • Diverts blood to the muscles

• Parasympathetic nervous system activation

  • Slows most bodily activity (except it activates digestion)

  • Reduces activity 

  • Conserves energy

4. Differentiate between two theories of emotions.

James Lange Theory of Emotion: Emotional experience results from the physiological arousal that proceeds it, and different emotions are a result of different patterns of arousal 

Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion: The identity of emotion is based on the cognitive assessment of the situation, and physiological arousal contributes only to the emotion’s intensity

5. Identify brain areas involved in processing emotions.

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that respond both when we engage in a specific action and while observing the same act in others

• May helps us understand emotion in others

• Helps with social communication

• Anterior Cingulate Cortex: 

  • Important for attention, cognitive processing, emotion, and possible consciousness

    • MRI shows larger right anterior cingulate cortex in people with high scores on harm avoidance

• The Prefrontal Cortex

  • Damage to the prefrontal area or severing its connections with the rest of the brain impairs people’s ability to make rational judgements

• The Amygdala

  • Involved in emotion, especially negative ones

    • Participates in memory formation, especially when emotion is involved

    • Processed emotionally significant stimuli

6. Define stress.

• A condition in the environment that makes unusually demands on an organism (threat and failure)

• An internal condition, your response to a stressful situation

7. Identify how stress is adaptive.

• Stress response includes activation of the sympathetic nervous system (largely controlled by the hypothalamus)

• Also activates the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis

8. Describe the relationship between stress and the immune system.

• Brief stress increases activity in the immune system

• The cells and cell products that kill infected and malignant cells and protect the body from foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses

9. Identify cells involved in immune response.

• Leukocytes: white blood cells - recognize invaders by the unique proteins (antigens) cells have on their surface and kills them 

  • Macrophage - ingest intruders

  • T cells - kill invaders

  • B cells - fight intruders by producing antibodies that can attack

• Natural killer cells - attack and destroy certain cancer and cells infected with viruses

10. Describe negative effects of stress.

• We’re better equipped to deal with brief stress as opposed to prolonged stress

• Chronic stress can

  • Interfere with memory

  • decrease/increase appetite

  • Diminish sexual drive

  • Deplete energy

  • Cause mood disruptions