AP Human Geography Unit Review Notes

Types of Maps: * Reference Maps: Show general information (political, physical, road, topographic). * Thematic Maps: Focus on specific variables; includes Choropleth, Dot distribution, Graduated symbol, Isoline, and Cartograms.
Map Projections and Distortion: Flattening a sphere causes distortion in shape, area, distance, or direction. * Mercator: Preserves direction/shape; distorts size at poles. * Gall-Peters: Preserves area; distorts shape. * Robinson: Balances all four distortions.
Types of Data: * Quantitative: Numerical data (e.g., population density, income). * Qualitative: Descriptive (e.g., field notes, interviews).
Geospatial Technologies: * Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Analyzing layered spatial data. * Satellite Navigation Systems (GPS): Precise location data. * Remote Sensing: Monitoring Earth from satellites or aircraft.
Scales of Analysis: Examining data at global, regional, national, and local levels. As scale becomes more local, data becomes more detailed.
Regions: * Formal (Uniform): Defined by shared measurable traits (e.g., The Sahara Desert). * Functional (Nodal): Focused on a center point (e.g., a TV station's service area). * Perceptual (Vernacular): Based on feelings or identity (e.g., "The American South").

Population Density: * Arithmetic: Total population $/$ total land area. * Physiological: Total population $/$ arable (farmable) land. * Agricultural: Number of farmers $/$ arable land.
Theories and Models: * Demographic Transition Model (DTM): Five stages of economic development based on birth/death rates. * Malthusian Theory: Thomas Malthus argued population grows exponentially while food grows arithmetically, leading to potential famine.
Population Policies: * Pro-natalist: Encourage births (e.g., France, Japan). * Anti-natalist: Discourage births (e.g., China’s One-Child Policy).
Migration: Driven by Push Factors (why people leave) and Pull Factors (why people arrive). * Ravenstein’s Laws: Most move short distances; migration occurs in steps; long distances target economic centers. * Forced Migration: Includes Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), and Asylum seekers.

Cultural Landscape: The visible imprint of human activity on the land (architecture, land use).
Sequent Occupancy: Layers of different cultural groups staying on the same land over time.
Types of Diffusion: * Relocation: Spread through physical movement. * Expansion: Includes Contagious (widespread), Hierarchical (power-based), and Stimulus (adapted traits).
Language and Religion: * Lingua Franca: Common language for trade (e.g., English). * Universalizing Religions: Seek global appeal (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Sikhism). * Ethnic Religions: Tied to specific groups/places (Hinduism, Judaism).
Cultural Interaction: * Acculturation: Adopting some traits while keeping original culture. * Assimilation: Full absorption into the dominant culture. * Syncretism: Blending traits to form new expressions (e.g., Voodoo, Tex-Mex).

Political Entities: * Nation-State: Cultural and political boundaries match (e.g., Japan). * Stateless Nation: Unified cultural group without a state (e.g., Kurds, Palestinians). * Multinational State: Multiple ethnic groups within one state (e.g., Russia, Canada).
Boundaries: * Types: Antecedent (pre-population), Superimposed (imposed by powers), Subsequent (shifted with culture), and Relic (former borders). * UNCLOS: Territorial sea ( $12\,nm$ ), Exclusive Economic Zone/EEZ ( $200\,nm$ ).
Governance Structures: * Unitary: Centralized power (e.g., France, China). * Federal: Shared power with regions (e.g., US, Canada, India).
Concepts: * Sovereignty: Full authority over internal/external affairs. * Devolution: Transfer of power from central to regional government. * Supranationalism: Multi-state cooperation (e.g., UN, EU, NATO, ASEAN).

Intensive vs. Extensive Farming: * Intensive: High labor/capital on small land (e.g., market gardening, rice paddies). * Extensive: Large land areas with low labor (e.g., ranching, shifting cultivation).
Agricultural Revolutions: * First: Neolithic domestication. * Second: Industrial-era mechanization (seed drill, steel plow). * Third/Green: High-yield seeds (HYVs), chemicals, and mechanization (led by Norman Borlaug).
Von Thünen Model: Land use based on distance from market and transport costs. * Ring 1: Dairy/Gardening (perishable). * Ring 2: Forest (heavy fuel). * Ring 3: Grains. * Ring 4: Ranching.
Conservation Concerns: Desertification, soil salinization, and loss of biodiversity.

Urban Hierarchy: Megacities ( $10\,M+$ population) and Metacities ( $20\,M+$ population).
Distribution Rules: * Rank-Size Rule: The $n^{th}$ largest city is $1/n$ the size of the largest. * Primate City: One city is more than twice the size of the next largest and dominates the state.
Urban Models: * Burgess Concentric-Zone: Rings from CBD. * Hoyt Sector: Wedge-shaped development along transport routes. * Harris & Ullman Multi-Nuclei: Multiple nodes (airports, universities). * Galactic City: Car-oriented city with edge cities and beltways.
Sustainable Design: New Urbanism, greenbelts, and smart-growth to counter urban sprawl.

Economic Sectors: Primary (extraction), Secondary (manufacturing), Tertiary (services), Quaternary (knowledge/tech), Quinary (decisions).
Measuring Development: * GDP/GNI per capita: Economic output. * Human Development Index (HDI): Life expectancy, education, and GNI. * Gender Inequality Index (GII): Reproductive health, empowerment, and labor participation.
Development Theories: * Rostow’s Stages: Linear 5-stage path to mass consumption. * Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory: Divides world into Core, Semiperiphery, and Periphery based on economic exploitation.
Contemporary Shifts: Outsourcing, Special Economic Zones (SEZs), and the rise of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the UN.