Fake test flash cards (Concise)

Musical Beat Perception

Definition of Musical Beat

  • A musical beat is defined as:

    • āœ” A perceived regular pulse that supports synchronized movement.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • The loudest note in each measure.

    • A fixed acoustic feature present only in percussion instruments.

Human Beat Perception

Predictive Nature

  • Human beat perception is considered predictive because:

    • Tapping typically precedes the physical beat.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • People always wait for the beat before moving.

    • The beat is calculated only after hearing the full rhythm.

Oscillatory Activity in the Brain

Relationship to Beat Perception

  • Oscillatory activity in the brain relates to beat perception because:

    • Neural oscillations can synchronize with rhythmic input.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Beats produce static electrical signals.

    • Oscillations occur only during sleep.

ASAP Model of Beat Perception

Overview

  • The ASAP model proposes that beat perception occurs when:

    • Motor planning regions simulate periodic movement to predict auditory timing.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Auditory cortex passively records temporal intervals.

    • The cochlea synchronizes with external vibrations.

Auditory-Motor Coupling

  • According to the ASAP model, auditory-motor coupling is strengthened in humans partly due to:

    • The evolution of vocal learning mechanisms.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Superior visual tracking.

    • Reflexive startle responses.

Vibrotactile Beat Perception

In Hearing Listeners

  • Vibrotactile beat perception in hearing listeners works best when:

    • Rhythms are isochronous and steady.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Rhythms are complex and irregular.

    • Vibrations occur randomly across frequencies.

Shared Similarity of Receptors

  • Vibrotactile and auditory receptors share a key similarity:

    • Both involve mechanoreceptors that bend with pressure changes.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Both detect color changes.

    • Both require chemical neurotransmitters to activate.

deaf Individuals & Enhancements

  • Deaf individuals often show enhanced vibrotactile beat perception due to:

    • Recruitment of auditory cortex during tactile processing.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Reduced somatosensory sensitivity.

    • Reliance on visual input only.

Predictions of ASAP Hypothesis

  • A core prediction of the ASAP hypothesis is that:

    • Beat perception can occur without auditory input.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • There is precise bidirectional signaling between auditory and motor regions.

    • The cerebellum alone controls timing.

Species and Beat Perception

Human-like Beat Perception

  • Which species are predicted to show human-like beat perception?

    • Species with vocal learning abilities.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • All primates.

    • Predatory mammals.

Auditory vs Visual Synchronization

  • Humans synchronize better to auditory than visual metronomes because:

    • Auditory-motor coupling is stronger than visual-motor coupling.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Sound travels faster than light.

    • Visual cortex cannot track timing.

Musical Pleasure

Brain Activation

  • Musical pleasure reliably activates:

    • The mesolimbic dopamine system.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • The dorsal visual stream.

    • The cerebellar vermis only.

Dopamine Antagonists

Effect on Musical Pleasure

  • Dopamine antagonists such as risperidone typically:

    • Reduce musical pleasure.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Increase musical pleasure.

    • Have no effect on music reward.

Musical Anhedonia

Definition and Implications

  • "Musical anhedonia" refers to people who:

    • Show reduced sensitivity to musical reward despite normal perception of music and reward sensitivity to other stimuli.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Show reduced sensitivity to musical reward despite normal perception of music.

    • Dislike all forms of music.

Prediction and Reward-Prediction Error Theories

Musical Pleasure

  • Prediction and reward-prediction error theories propose that musical pleasure arises when:

    • Actual musical events differ moderately from expected events.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Music is fully predictable.

    • Music contains no structure.

Salimpoor et al. (2009) Findings

Chills and Physiological Responses

  • Chills were associated with:

    • Increases in skin conductance, heart rate, and body temperature.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Lower heart rate.

    • No physiological changes.

TMS Studies on Musical Pleasure

Effects of iTBS over Left DLPFC

  • iTBS over left DLPFC (Mas-Herrero et al., 2021) typically leads to:

    • Increased musical pleasure and monetary valuation of music.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Reduced dopamine release.

    • No change in reward responses.

Exposure to Melodies

  • Repeated exposure to a melody generally produces:

    • An inverted-U relationship between exposure and liking.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • A linear increase in liking.

    • Decreased familiarity.

Cognitive Theories of Musical Emotion

Cognitivist View (Cannon-Baird)

  • Emotional response to music occurs:

    • After cognitive appraisal of musical events.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Without any appraisal.

    • Only through bodily feedback.

Emotivist View (James-Lange)

  • Emotion arises when:

    • Bodily changes occur first and are interpreted as emotion.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • We consciously label musical events.

    • Musical expectations are computed.

Cooke's Theory

Emotional Meaning of Intervals

  • Cooke's theory argues that intervals carry:

    • Universal emotional meaning.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Arbitrary meanings.

    • Meaning only through lyrics.

Kivy's Distinction

Contour vs Convention

  • Kivy distinguishes between contour and convention, where contour refers to:

    • Acoustic resemblance to emotional expression.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Learned cultural rules.

    • Harmonic syntax.

Meyer on Musical Emotion

Main Sources of Emotion

  • Meyer argues that musical emotion arises mainly from:

    • Expectancy violations and delays.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Cultural associations.

    • Timbre alone.

Huron's ITPRA Model

Prediction Phase

  • In Huron's ITPRA model, the Prediction phase involves:

    • Comparing the actual event with what was expected.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Bodily tension build-up.

    • Fast automatic response.

Brunswik Lens Model

Emotion Encoding

  • The Brunswik Lens Model proposes that:

    • Performers encode emotion in cues that listeners probabilistically decode.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Emotion is encoded only in lyrics.

    • Listeners cannot decode performer cues.

Juslin's Multiple Mechanisms Theory

Mechanisms of Musical Emotion

  • Juslin's Multiple Mechanisms Theory includes:

    • Several mechanisms (brainstem reflex, conditioning, imagery, memory, expectancy, entrainment, simulation).

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Only appraisal.

    • Only expectancy violation.

Mas-Herrero et al. (2021) Study Goals

Main Objective

  • The main goal of Mas-Herrero et al. (2021) was to:

    • Causally test the role of fronto-striatal circuits in musical pleasure.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Study cultural differences in liking.

    • Compare experts and non-musicians.

TMS Studies on Musical Pleasure

iTBS Effects

  • iTBS (excitatory TMS) over left DLPFC caused:

    • Increased liking, more chills, greater willingness to pay.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Reduced liking, reduced chills, reduced bids.

    • No behavioral changes.

CTBS Effects

  • CTBS (inhibitory TMS) caused:

    • Reduced reward-circuit responsiveness and lower liking.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Increased pleasure and motivation.

    • Only changes in auditory cortex.

Nucleus Accumbens Responses

  • The nucleus accumbens (NAcc) showed:

    • Predictive relationships with both pleasure (experience) and motivation (pre-experience).

    • Incorrect Options:

    • No modulation by TMS.

    • Activation only during anticipation but not experience.

Music-Based Interventions

Evidence for Domains

  • According to the lecture, music-based interventions show strongest evidence for:

    • Movement/speech rehabilitation, stress reduction, and social bonding.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Improving financial decision-making and planning.

    • Enhancing mathematical reasoning.

MedRhythms Approach

  • The MedRhythms approach to gait rehabilitation after stroke primarily uses:

    • Auditory rhythm cues adapted to the patient's gait.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Singing to improve respiratory coordination.

    • Harmonic entrainment to regulate balance.

Self-Selected Music

  • Why does self-selected music tend to produce stronger therapeutic effects?

    • It more effectively engages reward circuitry and emotional meaning.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • It usually has a slower tempo.

    • It is always calmer and more relaxing.

Iso Principle

  • The Iso principle involves:

    • Matching the client's current mood and gradually shifting toward a desired mood.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Selecting music that is opposite to the client's current emotional state.

    • Playing random music until emotional change occurs.

The Bonny Method

  • In the Bonny Method (Guided Imagery and Music), the therapist's role is:

    • To guide moment-to-moment imagery and reflection.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • To avoid speaking during the session.

    • To instruct the client to analyze the music formally.

Mallik & Russo RCT Conditions

  • The Mallik & Russo RCT compared which four conditions?

    • Combined (music+ABS), music-alone, ABS-alone, and pink noise.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Music, silence, ABS, and nature sounds.

    • Pink noise, brown noise, ABS, and silence.

Benefits of Music Therapy

Engagement in Long-Term Care

  • According to Amy Clements-Cortez, a key benefit of music therapy in long-term care is:

    • Its capacity to engage residents even when verbal communication is limited.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Its ability to replace pharmacological treatment entirely.

    • Its structured teaching of musical theory.

Music Therapist Collaboration

  • In the interview, Clements-Cortez emphasizes that music therapists must:

    • Tailor interventions to individual histories, preferences, and abilities.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Select only classical repertoire.

    • Work independently without interdisciplinary collaboration.

Performance Expression and Improvisation

Understanding the Process

  • Performance expression and improvisation are best understood as:

    • Points along a continuum of real-time musical creativity.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Completely separate musical processes.

    • Identical processes with no meaningful differences.

Musical Performance Details

  • Compared to the written score, a musical performance typically includes:

    • Additional expressive elements such as micro-timing, timbre, and phrasing.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Only the dynamics and tempo indicated by the composer.

    • Fewer expressive details than those written in the score.

Expressive Timing

  • Expressive timing, such as ritardando, often reflects:

    • Biological motion patterns, such as physical deceleration.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Arbitrary stylistic habits of the performer.

    • Cultural conventions unrelated to perception.

Visual Cues Impact

  • Visual cues such as facial expressions and gestures:

    • Shape listeners' emotional perception of performances.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Have no measurable impact on musical perception.

    • Only influence expert musicians.

Thompson, Russo & Quinto (2008) Study

  • The study demonstrated that visual information:

    • Automatically integrates with auditory cues in emotion perception.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Is processed only after musical information.

    • Interferes with emotional judgments.

Associative Generation in Improvisation

  • Associative generation in improvisation involves:

    • Developing new material by varying or extending prior musical ideas.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Introducing completely unrelated ideas to create surprise.

    • Repeating ideas exactly as they were played.

Interrupt Generation in Improvisation

  • Interrupt generation involves:

    • Breaking the musical flow with contrast or surprise.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Enhancing coherence and smooth transitions.

    • Expanding themes through gradual development.

Brain Regions Activation

  • Improvisation tends to activate:

    • Inferior frontal gyrus, premotor cortex, and supplementary motor area more than memorized performance.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Occipital cortex and cerebellum.

    • Amygdala and hippocampus.

Singer's Formant and Group Singing

Functionality

  • The "Singer's Formant" allows projection over an orchestra by creating:

    • An energy peak around 2.5-3 kHz.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • A vibrato pattern unique to soloists.

    • A resonance produced only during choral singing.

Group Singing Effects

  • Group singing has been shown to increase:

    • Oxytocin during group singing specifically.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Oxytocin during individual singing only.

    • Oxytocin during yoga.

Pain Perception

  • Group singing affects pain by:

    • Increasing pain thresholds.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Decreasing pain tolerance.

    • Having no measurable effect.

Good & Russo (2021) Study Outcomes

Effects of Group Singing

  • In Good & Russo (2021), which outcome occurred only after group singing:

    • Increases in salivary oxytocin.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Decreases in cortisol.

    • Improvements in respiratory control.

Predicting Mood with Biomarkers

  • In Good & Russo (2021), which biomarker significantly predicted mood?

    • Cortisol.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Oxytocin.

    • Both oxytocin and cortisol.

Mallik et al. (2025) Findings

  • In Mallik et al. (2025), which biomarker significantly predicted pain threshold?

    • Cortisol.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Oxytocin.

    • Both oxytocin and cortisol.

Long-Term Cognitive Benefits of Music Training

Limitations in Studies

  • A limitation in most studies claiming long-term cognitive benefits of music training:

    • Many studies are correlational rather than experimental.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • They use too many participants.

    • They rely only on EEG data.

Short-Term Effects of Music

  • The short-term effect of music supported by evidence:

    • Music can reduce perceived exertion during exercise.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Music permanently increases creativity.

    • Music eliminates distraction during multitasking.

OPERA Hypothesis Components

  • The component of the OPERA hypothesis stating that music requires greater accuracy of neural encoding than speech:

    • Precision.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • Overlap.

    • Attention.

Speech Prosody and Musicians

Reason for Enhanced Perception

  • One reason why musicians often show enhanced speech prosody perception:

    • Music and prosody share acoustic features such as pitch and rhythm.

    • Incorrect Options:

    • They memorize more vocabulary.

    • They practice speaking while playing instruments.

Synchrony in Prosocial Behavior

  • Why does synchrony matter in studies of prosocial behavior and group bonding?

    • Temporal alignment promotes feelings of closeness and cooperation.